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Slide 1: Annex 1 Minister of Science and Technology’s offer of samples for independent tests New Delhi, Jun 2: Centre today made an open offer to provide rock and soil samples from the Adam's Bridge region of the controversial Sethusamdram project for carrying out scientific tests. "There is an open offer. We will provide samples collected from the area to persons wanting to carry out tests independently," Minister of Earth Sciences Kapil Sibal told reporters. Sibal said the present alignment of the Sethusamudram project has been arrived at after detailed scientific and environmental tests. "The present alignment is the best we can have," he said. Sibal said utmost care has been taken to in the planning and execution of the project to ensure the least impact on the coasts of India and Sri Lanka. "The Sethusamudram Ship Channel is located at a distance of more than 20 Km from Shingle Island of Gulf of Mannar near Dhanuskodi," N K Raghupathy, Chairman and Managing Director of Sethusamudram Corporation Limited said making a presentation on the project here. The total length of the channel is 167 km, 12m deep and 300 meters wide at the bottom. Raghupathy, who also heads the Tuticorin Port Trust, said the project managers will not use blasting technology for dredging activity along the entire length of the project. He said there will be a restriction on the size of ships passing through the channel. (Agencies) http://www.chennaionline.com/colnews/newsitem.asp?NEWSID=%7B538DFCAAC6BB-4C4E-B52B-4D7274791201%7D&CATEGORYNAME=TAMNA Sethusamudram project is based on scientific studies: Sibal From our ANI Correspondent New Delhi, June 2: Union Science and Technology Minister Kapil Sibal said here today that the Sethusamundram Ship Canal Project (SSCP) across Palk Bay got its final nod only after careful scientific studies. The project was cleared only after taking into consideration the facts received from the bio-diversity and the fragile eco-system of the area falling between Palk Bay and the Palk Strait, Sibal told reporters here. He added that the Indo-Lankan Maritime interests between Point Calliner and Jaffna were taken into account before giving the final nod for the project. 1
Slide 2: The Centre has no intention of hurting the sentiments of any community, Sibal said. On May 16, the Lok Sabha was adjourned after Bharatiya Janata Party MPs raised a furore over the construction of the project. BJP MPs and the Vishva Hindu Parishad are demanding that project must be scrapped, as it would destroy the mythological bridge built by Lord Rama of Ayodhya. The Sethusamundram proposes the linking of the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka by creating a shipping canal through the shallow sea. This would provide a continuous navigable sea route around the Indian Peninsula. The project involves digging a 44.9 nautical mile (83 km) long deepwater channel linking the shallow water of the Palk Strait with the Gulf of Mannar. Conceived as early as 1860 by Alfred Dundas Taylor, it recently received approval of the Government of India. http://www.dailyindia.com/show/146256.php/Sethusamudram-project-is-based-onscientific-studies:-Sibal 2
Slide 3: Annex 2. Submissions made since 2005 3
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Slide 9: Annex 3. Impact of Tsunami on Setusamudram Shipping Channel and the neighboring coastal areas Interview with Professor Tad S. Murty Prof. Tad S. Murty is one of the most respected Tsunami Experts around the world; he advises the Government of Canada on Tsunamis and had played an important role in the development of the 'Baird' simulation model of the December 26th Tsunami. He was in the Editorial Board of the most prestigeous Tsunami Journal "Science of Tsunami Hazards" for many years. He along with Dr.Arun Bapat, had analysed the Tsunamis of the Indian Ocean in 1999.* He was in India this January to participate in the 'Brainstorming' Session on the Tsunami of 26 th December organized jointly by Department of Science & Technology (DST), Department of Ocean Development (DOD), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and Indian National Science Academy (INSA) on 2122 January, 2005 at New Delhi. Subsequently, when National Institute of Oceanography, Goa organised a National Workshop on Formulation of Science Plan for “Coastal Hazard Preparedness” on 18 - 19 February 2005, he set the tone for the workshop with his paper titled "Perspectives on Coastal Hazard Preparedness". The following is an e-mail interview conducted with him by the Editor of this web portal on 7- 11 July 2005. The interview assumes its importance following the July 24, 2005 Nicobar 7.3 R Earthquake that had caused much panic. It also assumes its importance as the Expert Level discussion between India and Sri Lanka on the possible impact of the Sethusamudram Shipping Channel Project on the marine and coastal environments of both the countries is scheduled on 1 August 2005 at New Delhi. 9
Slide 10: * [" TSUNAMIS ON THE COASTLINES OF INDIA" Science of Tsunami Hazards Volume 17(3), 1999] Question: Respected Professor! Would you please tell me what you personally think about the reply given to the Prime Minister by Tuticorin Port Trust with regard to your critical opinion about the present alignment of the Sethusamudram Shipping Channel published in the Indian Express dated 18 January 2005? Prof. Tad S.Murty: I would first of all share with you a bit of background on my slight involvement with Sethusamudram Shipping Channel Project. In January 2005, I was in India as the tsunami expert on the delegation of Prime minister Paul Martin (Canada) visit to various Asian countries following the tsunami. On 18th January I was with the prime minister at a press briefing in Delhi. Later some Indian express and Telegraph reporters spoke to me about SSCP and I made these comments. Earlier I was working on a paper on SSCP and was interested in the scientific aspects of the project. In May Tuticorin Port Trust (TPT) sent me a fax dated early February asking for my comments and said that the project is finalized by end of Feb and they wanted my comments within 24 hours. I replied to Mr. Raghunadh(IAS officer) ( read: Mr.Ragupathy - Editor ) that I received his fax only in May and possibly I cannot reply by mid-Feb. I sent a page explaining why the eastern entrance of the channel should be re-oriented. After a few days I received a reply saying that his experts outright dismissed my idea as ridiculous and has absolutely no merit. I did not do anything after this, as I have no official involvement. If you include my student days in the Andhra University and later at the university of Chicago, I have more than 45 years of experience with tsunamis worldwide and I know what I am talking about. I cannot understand why Tuticorin Port Trust could not find me when everyone else can find me. The Indian Express newspaper article clearly says that I was staying at the Taj Palace hotel in Delhi and will be there for another week or so. Question: How do you react to Tuticorin Port Trust's statement that the suggestion you had made with respect to the present alignment of the Channel and its possible chance of acting as a conduit to future tsunamis, thus paving way to causing damage to South Kerala coast as untenable? Prof. Tad S.Murty: Tuticorin Port Trust (TPT) of course can draw whatever conclusions they want to. I feel that the Bay of Bengal entrance of the present orientation of the channel will undoubetedly funnel tsunami energy into the channel and this will meet the tsunami traveling from south of Sri Lanka at the southern part of Kerala and through 10
Slide 11: constructive interference will augment the tsunami wave amplitudes. The southern part of Kerala was not much impacted by the 26th December 2004 tsunami mainly because the tsunami that arrived from the Indian Ocean has to diffract around Sri Lanka, which necessarily has to take a very wide turn (because tsunamis are long gravity waves and cannot bend as easily as short waves, just like a big car versus a mini. A mini cut cut corners, but a big car has to take very wide turns.) and missed south Kerala. It is very easy to show that the SSCP channel with a depth of 12m will indeed provide another route for the tsunami and the energy will be directed towards south Kerala. I have no official connection with the SSCP, only a scientific curiosity plus my concern that south Kerala will be put at risk in future. I do not worry that TPT does not think much of my ideas or me. I do not have to justify myself to TPT. I have to fight my battles, not with TPT but in the field of peer reviewed international scientific journals. To summarize, a re-orientation of the eastern entrance of the channel towards northwest will fix the tsunami problem. Why this concerns me is a parallel example in the Alberni canal on Vancouver Island, British Columbia province of Canada. In the March 28th 1964 Alaska earthquake tsunami, outside of Alaska, the largest tsunami amplitude was at the head of the Alberni canal well inland and not at the open coast as everyone expected. Later when I joined the Canadian Oceanographic Service, I explained this as due to quarter wave resonance amplification. The SSP canal has many characteristics similar to the Alberni canal, and this is the reason I am concerned. Question: Professor! The Detailed Project Report prepared by L&T - Ramboll has finalized the location of the dumping sites for the dredged materials. They are located in Bay of Bengal and Gulf of Mannar and have a depth ranging from 30 to 40 km. These sites happen to lie just north of and south of the entrance and exit of the channel. What are the chances for these sites to remain safe and stable during the time of a future tsunamis and cyclones? Also, what are the chances for them to be carried over into the channel in the event of future tsunamis and cyclones? Prof. Tad S.Murty: I need to do some back of the envelope calculations to precisely answer your question, which I will do in a few days. However, my initial intuition is that the dumping sites will not be completely stable, especially if they happen to be in the path of the tsunami waves. They may be relatively stable from the cyclones and storm surges, since these do not cause much bottom scouring like tsunamis. The safety issue arises if they are contaminants, especially radioactive contaminants. Again, I need to do a back of the envelope type computation for a definite answer, 11
Slide 12: again my intuition is that the cyclone and storm surge effects will be less as compared to tsunamis. Certainly tsunamis have the potential to pull all this material back into the channel, if the orientation is right. The basic question I will attempt to answer through an analytical analysis is simply this. Would storm surges and tsunamis have the energy to move the dredged material back into the channel? As I said earlier, my present feeling is, storm surges probably will not move much material, but tsunamis definitely would. I will try to quantify this in a couple of days. As per the TPT's conclusion that no re-orientation of the eastern entrance of the channel is required, I absolutely disagree with it. I do not need to analyze that any more. I have analyzed the problem to my complete satisfaction. …………. I now have more definite answers to your questions. In spite of what the TPT says, there is a real threat to southern Kerala from future tsunamis from SSP. At this time I do not have the resources to actually do a numerical model to determine the quantitative aspects of the movement aspects of the dredged material. (However) I did some analytical analysis of whether cyclones (and storm surges) and tsunamis can move the dredged material from Palk Bay into the channel. The impact from cyclones and storm surges will be minimal, but tsunamis can move a significant amount of the dredged material into the channel. Date of Publication: 1 August 2005 http://sethusamudram.in/htmdocs/Articles/Interviews/tad_murty.htm 12
Slide 13: Annex 4 Sethusamudram - Can it remain safe and stable in its present form? Interview with Prof G Victor Rajamanickam Prof.G Victor Rajamanickam is one of the India's eminent coastal geo-morphologists and minerologists. And he is an authority in the studies of Tamil Nadu's coastal geomorphology. He has authored innumerable research papers and made substantial contribution in the study of coastal mineral deposits and sedimentation dynamics. During 1990 and 2000, Prof Rajamanickam had organized two international seminars on changes in sea level and their effects on the coast. Top coastal minerologists in India including Dr V J Loveson, Prof N Chandrasekar, Dr N Angusamy and Dr Anbarasu have been his students. Prof Rajamanickam, till recently, was heading the School of Earth Sciences at the Tamil University, Thanjavur. He currently heads the Department of Disaster Management at the SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur. Prof Rajamanickam has evinced keen interest in the Sethusamudram Shipping Channel since the early eighties. Having analysed the high sedimentation in the Palk Bay in the late eighties, he wrote extensively on the need to dig a channel in order to save Palk Bay from becoming a lagoon. More recently, in October 2004, he was invited to deliver a special lecture, Sethusamudram - the lifeline of Tamil Nadu, at a national seminar on Ecological Balance and Sethusamudram Canal, organized by the Department of Oceanography and Coastal Area Studies of Alagappa University. As for the ongoing SSC project, it is pertinent to note here that the entire section on the Geomorphology of Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar in the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Report prepared by the Nagpur-based National Environment Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) has been based on the original research findings and writings of Prof Rajamanickam and his student, Dr V.J.Loveson. Following is the transcript of the taped interview given by Prof Rajamickam to the editor of this web portal at Thanjavur on August 10, 2005. This interview assumes its immense importance on two counts: firstly, in the context of the very first meeting of the High Level Environmental Monitoring Committee for the ongoing Channel Project, held at Chennai on August 9, 2005; secondly, in the context of the stir proposed by fishermen to blockade the project's dredging ship on August 12, 2005, at Palk Strait, to highlight their point that this dredging activity would endanger their entire livelihood. 13
Slide 14: Question: Professor, can you please tell us briefly about the significant and unique features of the dynamics of the Tamil Nadu coast? Prof Rajamanickam: Regarding the Tamil Nadu Coast general status, the peculiar transformation of sediment transportation toward landward migration (which is also the phenomenon faced by the peninsular India as a whole) is an important phenomenon to be observed by every one. So, as long as the landward migration is there, there is no need to be anxious about the issues of erosion or deposition in this coast. The erosion and deposition noted in this coast are due to local geo-morphology and tectonics. Cliff and river mouth convergence are also existent. Convergence creates certain amount of erosion. However, we have to underline here that the erosion that this coast is facing today is mainly due to the anthropogenic activity of the Madras harbour and the Tuticorin harbour extensions. Tuticorin harbour extension has transformed the coastal stretch between it and Kanyakumari from a coast of sediment deposition into a coast of erosion. Besides this, we should also note that there is some amount of effect on these coastal processes by the Achankovil Shear Zone, near which the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant is fast coming up. This shear zone is always expected to cause upward unevenness, tectonic pressure, which might in turn cause any amount of coastal sinking or uplift. The recent recurrent entry of Sea, in my opinion, is due to a tectonic lowering or tectonic sinking, which must have acted in line with Andaman fault. Question: When the Tsunami struck the Indian coast on December 26, your team was already involved in Placer Deposit Studies in the Cuddalore-Vedaranyam coast for one and a half years. Immediately following the Tsunami, your team led by Dr Loveson, one of your old students, identified that the Tsunami deposits were very rich in titanium. Can you please describe this finding in detail? Prof Rajamanickam: Yes. The coast between Nagapattinam to Nagore, Nagore to Poompuhar, Colachal and Madras were the places where the strong impact from the Tsunami was noticed. These were also the places where a high order of ilmenites was found soon after the Tsunami. For example in the Nagore coast, the pre-Tsunami heavy mineral content of 14 per cent jumped to 70 per cent of ilmenites after the Tsunami. Such is the spectacular difference between the pre and post-Tsunami estimates. Whatever Zircon, Garnets, Amphebole, Pyroxenes were washed away by the Tsunami from these beaches were replaced and filled with high, denser minerals like ilmenites and magnatites ilmenites the maximum. One may take this as a blessing in disguise. Now, titanium is going to give a higher revenue to the Government as its cost is increasing everyday - like oil. We have confirmed the availability of titanium not only in the surface but also its presence in the sub-surface. At Nagore, for example, we had noted that the Tsunami 14
Slide 15: had caused an erosion of two meters; however, titanium sand had replaced this twometer sand. We have recorded this using the GPR also. Question: How do you think that the recent Tsunami interacted with the already existing coastal sedimentation regime between Chennai and Palk Bay, and also Palk Bay and Kanyakumari? Prof Rajamanickam: The Tsunami had completely disturbed the Shelf sediment right from River Krishna down to Kanyakumari. It had disturbed the seabed even up to 200 meters. From the Shelf break, the Tsunami had churned the sediments and brought the material to the coast and had pushed them further upland and while receding had taken back all the fine heavy minerals, fine silts, clays back to the Shelf. So, the Shelf sediments now have a completely new texture after the Tsunami. If one studies the present sediments, one would be surprised to find the seabed to be a different one now. It is in this regard I feel that we have to undertake a resurvey of our seabed and understand the nature of the sediment present in it. Hence I feel an understanding of the pre-Tsunami sedimentation condition alone cannot work possibly for any modeling. Question: After the recent Tsunami, the Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies of the Madurai-Kamaraj University (MKU) found that the sedimentation rate in some places of Palk Bay has increased almost by 64 per cent. (The sedimentation rate recorded earlier was 32.5 mg/d in November 2004; it had increased to 53.4 mg/d during the Tsunami)Do you think that the entire Palk Bay would have experienced such an increase in sedimentation rate or would it be that only a few selected areas in Palk Bay known already for higher sedimentation rates had experienced this? Prof Rajamanickam: The finding of suspension load or sedimentation of 53.4 mg/d is possible.The churning impact of the Tsunami from the deeper depths reminds us that it might take some time - may be even years - to settle back all the churned out clay and silt surfaced by the waves. Earlier, our own study on the quantification of the sediments at Sethubavachatram had revealed the immense amount of sedimentation that is going on in the Bay. Question: Do you think that the entire Palk Bay would have experienced such an increase in turbidity? Prof Rajamanickam: Yes. It would be a general phenomenon throughout the Bay because Palk Bay had also faced the Tsunami. Refracted Tsunami waves had entered Palk Bay. So, churning (of the sea bed by the Tsunami) must have prevailed there also. It should be remembered here that Palk Bay seabed is only a temporary seabed - I mean, not a consolidated one. It is a seabed made up of dumped sediments. So, the entire dumped sediments to the tune of nearly about 6 to 7 meters should have been churned up by the refracted Tsunami waves. This I feel will take a longer time to settle down in Palk Bay particularly. 15
Slide 16: Question: Between May 2003 and February 2004, NEERI had studied the bathymetry of Adam's Bridge area. During January-February 2004, NHO had surveyed the entire alignment of the Sethu Channel (north of Adam's Bridge). L&TRamboll, the firm which that prepared the SSC's Detailed Project Report (DPR), in its February 2005 report, had suggested changes in the Channel's length and alignment. The Channel length in the Adam's Bridge area has been increased by about 14.92 km, and the same in Palk Strait by about 0.13 km and the undredged central portion by about 0.32 km. -- thus increasing the total length of the Channel by about 15.37 km. This is about 9.17 per cent increase in the original length proposed by NEERI. The total dredging cost proposed in NEERI's Technical Feasibility Report was Rs. 1595.35 crores. An increase in the length of the channel by 9.17 per cent would increase the cost of dredging by about 146.34 crores. All these are of course pre-tusnami estimates. In the light of the post-Tsunami sedimentation increase at Palk Bay as reported by the MKU study, are we to expect an increase in the quantum of sediments that has to dredged? In your professional opinion, do you think there would be cost escalation for the project, in this aspect? Prof.G.V.Rajamanickam: Definitely. Now the dredging level will go high because at least half to one meter of sediment must have been deposited at the Palk Strait by the Tsunami. When you cross through the Palk Strait, the previous bathymetry of 10 meters would only be 9 meters now. So, to reach a maximum of 12 meters bathymetry, you would have to remove one more meter of the sediment. This would definitely lead to cost escalation of the project. The total quantum of sediment to be removed now would be more than the pre-Tsunami estimates. There is no question about it. A re-survey of the present depth and also the nature of the sediments that the Tsunami had brought in is a must today. Tsunami has brought in a new stratum of sediments. If the pre-Tsunami dredgers approach this now, they would find a quite contrasting change in the nature of the present sediments. Hence, it is always advisable for having a quick look in the seabed now existing after the Tsunami. It is also a must to assess the expenditure column and the time it is going to take for dredging in this changed scenario. Question: L&T-Ramboll's DPR has identified the dumping sites for the dredged materials. These sites are said have a depth of 30 to 40 meters and they lie just adjacent to the northern and southern mouths of the Channel. In an interview to this web portal in July 2005, Canada-based Tsunami expert Prof Tad S Murty has said: " I did some analytical analysis of whether cyclones (and storm surges) and tsunamis can move the dredged material from Palk Bay into the channel. (I have come to the conclusion that) tsunamis can move a significant amount of the dredged material into the channel". Professor, do you think this is as a possibility? Prof Rajamanickam: See… after having witnessed the Tsunami's impact and its ability to disturb the seabed even in the outer shelf - one should be very careful in choosing the dumping sites. 16
Slide 17: Further, as I described to you earlier, we have landward migration of the sediments in this part of the coast. The presently chosen depths of 30 to 40 meters as the dumping sites, any monsoon will be able to disturb, leave alone cyclones or a tsunami. So, unless and otherwise the project people take these dumping sites farther away to deeper areas, I feel, there would not be any solution at all. Whatever you dump, the next monsoon it will be brought back. So, your dredging would be perennial. There won't be any solution, reduction in the dredging. In the recent workshop on Ecological Monitoring of the Sethu Channel held at Madurai I had projected this opinion. We should take the dredge materials to deeper areas at least with 50 meters depth. If it is going to be more than 50 meters still better. Also, the project people should not think of dumping at one single point; they should rather spread it over. That is the ideal action to control the landward migration of the dumped materials back. Question: Professor, here is a small problem! Taking the dredged materials farther away is going to further escalate the project cost… Prof Rajamanickam: No. I don't think this would increase the cost much when you consider the nature of the slope of the Eastern Shelf. This has a very high slope. So planning to take the dredged materials farther away by about 200 to 300 meters, you would be reaching areas with 20 meters higher depths. When you compare this with the Western Shelf - there, to reach areas with 5 meters higher depths you will have to travel a few kilometers. The Shelf nature is like that. So, there is no need to be worried about cost escalation when your work is in the Eastern Shelf. Question: The Indian Shipping Ministry has set up a Monitoring Committee to assess the impact of the dredging activity on the environment and advise the project authorities. The Committee consists of marine biologists and microbiologists besides experts from the fields of fisheries, agriculture. However, it had not considered including sedimentologists, geo-morphologists or meteorologists. The work on the Channel is progressing with an a priori understanding of the sedimentation situation of the pre-Tsunami period. The project authorities have not attempted a post Tsunami survey of the sedimentation situation before starting their dredging work. The pre-Tsunami a priori understanding of the Project authorities on the sedimentation and meteorology dynamics of the area had not considered many of the most important sedimentation and meteorological studies done for the area from 1990 to the present. What do you think would be the consequence to the future of the Project and the coasts around from such a supposedly negligent attitude? Can you suggest a plan to remedy this urgent situation? 17
Slide 18: Prof Rajamanickam: I have already emphasized, at the recent workshop at Madurai, that the lack of Earth System scientists - I mean, geo-morphologists, sedimentologists, mineralogists, oceanographers, climatologists - team will definitely bring problems to the maintenance of Palk Strait in the future. Theirs is the most important work, as this would occupy 90% of the total necessity in the monitoring work of the possible impact of dredging and maintenance of the project area. The present monitoring team, which comprises scientists from Marine Biology, Fisheries etc., will be able to do only 10% of the total required monitoring work. Unless Earth System Science teams strongly enter - right from the initial stages to the continued monitoring of Palk Strait - this whole activity will be a failure sooner or later. It is with this concern in mind myself and Prof T J Pandyan have suggested in the Madurai workshop the Geo-technology team of Manonmaniyam Sundaranar University to be brought into the monitoring committee. Question: What about including private organizations in oceanography like Indomer Coastal Hydraulics, Chennai etc., into the monitoring committee? Prof Rajamanickam: Ironically, it is my personal opinion that the private industries - if you give them the pertinent direction - like telling them we want these, these, and these - they will sincerely execute the job. So, inducting private oceanographers or private parties or researchers is no harm; but they should be given a clear-cut instruction that these are the works that have to done meticulously. If there is any failure on this, the project people should tell them point blank that they will be responsible and will be penalized even. Such an attitude will make them to work properly. See… Private research companies have already conducted the Biological Survey, Environment and Hydrographic Survey etc., for the Sethu Project. So, why not include them also in the monitoring work? As for the present, there is absolutely no tool to check whether all the important factors like hydrography, bathymetry, current dynamics, total suspension load, climate changes, sea level alterations etc., that have the ability to affect the Project and the Bay are being monitored in the first place. So, who is going to do that? Single one measurement of wave and currents and one turbidity measurement will not give you the solution that is required to safeguard the project or its environment. That is why I was telling in the Madurai Workshop the other day that continuous current monitoring studies, current observations should be done in four places - In the Gulf (of Mannar) 2 places, in the Palk Strait one in the north and one in the south - that is one north of Manamelkudi and the other south of it. Indomer can of course do wave, current and other studies; but they should be given clear-cut directions. Then there should be some professionally well competent x or y to monitor whether they have completed their work properly. 18
Slide 19: Question: How about the universities with earth science expertise taking part in the monitoring work? Prof Rajamanickam: I strongly feel that universities should take a larger role in the monitoring work right from now on - because Sethusamudram Corporation needs manpower; and unless and otherwise the Universities are involved right now, they cannot develop to their requirement, as there would not be any exposure. This would be in the betterment of the Sethusamudram Corporation both in the short and long term alike. Question: As a veteran geo-morphologist who had spent almost 20 years studying this coastal stretch, what is the right advice you would like to give to the Sethusamudram Corporation? Prof Rajamanickam: The monitoring system, I mean the High Level Monitoring Committee that the Government had appointed recently, sadly does not have a hydrographer, sedimentologist, geo-morphologist, geologist, coastal tectonics expert, or experts from atmospheric sciences. So, what will this present monitoring committee do? The fields I have just mentioned are the dominant sciences that are to ensure the safety and the stability of the Sethusamudram Project and its environment. So, I really do not know how this present monitoring committee, which lacks all these expertise, is going to do its required job of ensuring safety and stability to the channel and its environment! I sincerely feel that the Government should go for experts from these fields of interest, in addition to the experts who are there in the high level monitoring committee. Then only you will have the proper input to see whether the Sethusamudram Channel is functioning well. Otherwise Sethusamudram Channel will remain imbalanced. It will not give the benefit or the impact for which it had been visualized for the past 150 years. Notes: 1. Here are some of the important articles with respect to Palk Bay: a)Loveson,VJ, and Rajamanickam,G.V.,(1987) "Coastal Geomorphology of Southern Tamil Nadu", in Proc.Remote Sensing in Land Transformation and Management, Hyderabad, p.115-129 b) Loveson,VJ, and Rajamanickam,G.V.,(1988) "Progradation as evidenced around a submerged ancient port, Periapatnam, Tamil Nadu", in Ind.Jr.Landscape and Ekistics Studies, 12, pp.94-96 c) Loveson,VJ, and Rajamanickam,G.V.,(1988 a) "Evidences for the phenomena of emergence along Southern Tamil NAdu Coast through Remote Sensing techniques" in Tamil Civilization, 5(4), pp.80-90 19
Slide 20: d) Loveson,VJ., Victor Rajamanickam,G., Anbarasu,K., (1990) "Remote Sensing applications in the study of sea level variation along the Tamilnadu coast, India" in G.Victor Rajamanickam ed., 'Sea level variation and its impact on coastal environment", Tamil University, Thanjavur, pp.176-196 e) Victor Rajamanickam,G., Loveson,V.J., (1990) "Results of Radiocarbon Dating from some beach terraces around Rameshwaram island, Tamil Nadu" in G.Victor Rajamanickam ed., 'Sea level variation and its impact on coastal environment", Tamil University, Thanjavur f) Loveson,VJ., Victor Rajamanickam,G., Chandrasekar,N., (1990), "Environmental impact of micro-deltas and swamps along the coast of Palk Bay, Tamil Nadu, India", in G.Victor Rajamanickam ed., 'Sea level variation and its impact on coastal environment", Tamil University, Thanjavur g) Loveson,VJ., Angusamy,N and Rajamanickam,G.V., (1996) "Usefulness of identifying different geomorphic blocks along the coast of southern Tamil Nadu", in Ind.Jr.Geomorphology, 1, pp.97-110 h) Loveson,VJ., Victor Rajamanickam.G., "Evidence of Quarternary Sea Level Changes and Shoreline Displacement on the Southeastern Coromandal Coast of India" in Proc. Of the International Seminar on Quaternary Sea Level Variation, Shoreline Displacement and Coastal Environment, New Delhi, 2000 # Palk Bay and Adam's Bridge - Geomorphology and Sedimentation - An Anthology This compilation contains important excerpts from the above mentioned works of Prof.G.V.Rajamanickam. Seminars: 2) a) 'Sea level variation and its impact on coastal environment", Tamil University, Thanjavur, 1990, b) International Seminar on Quaternary Sea Level Variation, Shoreline Displacement and Coastal Environment, New Delhi, 2000 Note of Thanks: The editor thanks Mr.Ramesh Gopalakrishnan, London for his help rendered in editing the Introductory part of this Interview. Date of Publication: 12 August 2005, Friday http://sethusamudram.in/htmdocs/Articles/Interviews/Victor.htm 20
Slide 21: Annex 5 Will ships use canal at such costs? K.S.Ramakrishnan Former Deputy Chairman, Madras Port Trust Madras Musings 1-16 July 2005 The basic justification of the Sethusamudram Ship Canal Project (SSCP) is that it will reduce the distance between Kolkata and Tuticorin by 340 nautical miles and between Chennai and Tuticorin by 434 nautical miles, thereby saving for the ships plying between these places both fuel cost and time involved in sailing the additional distance. This justification will be readily valid if the SSC is a free seaway which ships can sail through without any payment to the project authority. But the SSC can not be a free seaway… as ships will be allowed to pass through the canal only under regulated pilotage, and pushed /pulled by tugs belonging to the SSCP. Obviously, even while saving on the cost of fuel, a ship passing through the canal will be expected to make a payment to the SSCP for using the facility. The likely pilotage charge to be levied by the SSCP has not been made public, but an approximate figure can be guessed by extrapolating similar charges levied by the Chennai and Tuticorin Port at present. The approach channel to the Chennai port has a length of 7 km. A 36,000 tonne coal ship calling at Chennai has to pay approximately Rs.21.75 a tonne, or a total of Rs.7.83 lakh, as pilotage charges averaging Rs.1.11 lakh per km. Tuticorin's approach channel is only 2.4 km long and an identical coal ship calling at this port is levied Rs.17 a tonne, or a total of 6.12 lakh, towards pilotage, working out to Rs.3 lakh per km. (The comparative lower rate per km at Chennai is because the capitol cost of digging the much older channel has been amortised a long time ago.) The projected length of the Sethusamudram channel is 56 km. Both capital and recurring cost will be much higher for the SSCP than for the Chennai and Tuticorin ports, and its levy of pilotage per km is likely to be substantially higher than that of even the latter if it has to have a 9 per cent return on the capital. Even if the Chennai rate is assumed, the same ship will have to pay over 60 lakhs to the SSCP for passing through the canal. But the cost of fuel that will be saved by the same ship by taking the shorter route through the Sethusamudram canal instead of sailing round Sri Lanka will be less than Rs. 7 lakh, which is even less than 1/8 of SSCP's likely levy. 21
Slide 22: The saving in sailing time for that ship will also be substantially less than the 36 hours projected by the SSCP because the ship can not be towed through the canal at its normal speed through the canal, and the time will also be lost in embarkation/disembarkation of pilots and other inspection procedures. The saving in sailing time of just about a day will not justify the incurring of over 8 times the cost of fuel saved. http://www.Setusamudram.in/htmdocs/Articles/Article%201.htm 22
Slide 23: Annex 6 Rama Setu through the ages: evidences from satellite images, cartography, epigraphy, sculptures, numismatics, historical and literary texts, logo of Survey of India (Aasetu Himachalam) Rama Setu is the southern boundary of Bharatam and hence a monument of national importance October 26, 2003, ISRO (National Remote Sensing Agency) Resource Satellite 1 http://www.isro.org/pressrelease/ph2.jpg NASA Gemini XI Spacecraft (Sept. 12, 1966 - Sept. 15, 1966); NASA Space Shuttle Mission STS 59 (1994) http://history.nasa.gov/SP-168/section3b.htm Exploring space with a camera by NASA "[193] Gemini XI. This photograph from an altitude of 410 miles encompasses all of India, an area of 1250 000 square miles," GEORGE M. LOW, then the Deputy Director, Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA, notes. "Bombay is on the west coast, directly left of the spacecraft's can-shaped antenna New Delhi is just below the horizon near the upper left. Adam's Bridge between India and Ceylon , at the right, is clearly visible. A cloudless region surrounds the entire suBCEontinent. Differences in 23
Slide 24: color, green near the west coast, and brown inland, delineate regions of heavy vegetation and semiarid areas." The picture by NASA is available on the NASA website. Rama Setu as a land-bridge Feb. 23, 2003 International Space Station Expedition 6 (Bridge linking Dhanushkodi and Talaimannar as seen from the Space Station) Survey of India logo: Aasetu Himachalam, 1767 http://www.surveyofindia.gov.in/ http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/srilanka.htm Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) of NASA aboard space shuttle Endeavour launched in February 2000. "Sri Lanka is shaped like a giant teardrop falling from the southern tip of the vast Indian suBCEontinent. It is separated from India by the 50km (31mi) wide Palk Strait, although there is a series of stepping-stone coral islets known as Adam's Bridge that almost form a land bridge between the two countries." Evidence from ancient texts Bauddham in Lankavatara Sutra tradition notes that the Buddha walked across the bridge to reach Adam's Peak what was called Vishnupaadam. In muslim and Christian traditions, Adam after banishment from heaven reportedly walked across the bridge to reach Adam's Peak, what was called Vishnupaadam. Let us call it Rama Setu because the setu is enshrined in sculptures in Java, Indonesia in the Parambanan temple (Brahmavana). References to Dharba sayanam where sri rAmA does a saranAgathy to samudrarAjan to grant him permisson to cross the sea. SlokA 52,53,54 *************** 52 : prathisayana bhumikA bhooshitha payOdhi puLina ! Jaya ! Jaya ! Hail to Thee O Raghuveera , who beautified the assembly of sands of the beach (at 24
Slide 25: ThirupullANi ) through your lying down on them in a bed of sacred grass in observance of Your PraayOpvesam ! Hail to Thee ! **************************************************** 53: praLaya sikhi parusha visika sikhA soshitAkupAra vAripura ! Jaya ! Jaya ! (Meaning ) : Hail to You , O Raghuveera , who evaporated the waters of the ocean with the power of your arrows that resembled the fire which destroys the world at the time of deluge ! ************************************************** 54 : prabhala ripu kalaha kuthuka chatula kapikula karatala toolitha Hrutha giri nikara sAdhita sethupatha seemA semanthitha samudhra ! Jaya ! Jaya ! ( meaning ) :O mighty hero of the scion of Raghus, who created the demarcation of the ocean with your bridge built by the mighty monkeys,who out of their eagerness to reach LankhA to fight their enemies splintered huge mountains and threw them into the ocean as though they were feathery bales of cotton ! Hail to Thee! Hail to Thee ! (Source: Swami Desikan's Raghu veraa Gadhyam (aka) Sri mahAveera Vaibhavam.) Periya thirumozhi of Thiru Mangai azhwar (Parakala Naayaki) 9.4.5 about dharbas'ayanam/ thirupullani a divya desam 15 kms from Rameshwaram "PullaaNi Emperumaan poi kettirunde_ne_.. " (I have only heard now of His lies..!) All my relatives come and tell me.."You should have listened to us. You listened to Him. We spoke truth; He has become a liar. ". "Okay. I will now listen to you all. But, only after getting my heart back that had gone behind Him." says Parakala Nayaki. (vallaaLan pin pOna nenjam varumaLavum..) Though all of them talk about me, I am still trusting that "Great liar (of ThirupullaaNi Emperumaan's)'s words and am living with a (faint?) hope. Thirumaalai by Thondar Adi Podi Azhwar also refers to emperumaan at the Setu. This section is an answer to the question: why should Rama Setu or Setu Bandha be deemed to be an ancient monument of national and international significance? 25
Slide 26: Holy places of South Asia http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=136 Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 99. (Joseph E. Schwartzberg, ed., 1978, A historical atlas of South Asia, University of Chicago Press, Chicago) The legends shown on this map clearly demonstrate the importance of Rameswaram and the link to Tirukketisvaram (in Srilanka) as a holy tirtha. Rameswaram is recognized as one of the twelve jyotirlingas of Shiva. Srilanka gets associated with Naga. Historical sources evidence the fact that Rama Setu was a land bridge linking Bharatam and Lanka for many millennia. The following maps and images are principally drawn from Schwartzberg Atlas, 1978. The Epics refer to the link between Kapaata and Lanka. From the time of the preMauryan and Mauryan Empire (from 6th century BCEE), the holy site called Koti gains prominence. This is the short-form of Dhanushkoti, evoking the Ramayana narration of Sri Rama confronting Samudra Raja (King of Ocean) by fixing the end of his bow at this island which links with Lanka at Tambapanni or Tamraparni (at a place called Mahatittha, meaning Maha Tirtha, or Great Tirthasthaana) through Setu Bandha. Thus, the link between Dhanushkodi and Mahatittha constitute the tirthasthaana for over two millennia. During the Satavahana-Saka-Kusana age, c. A.D. 1-300, Rameshwaram close to Dhanushkodi gains prominence as a holy place. Puranic India (Bharata) recognizes Setuka as the bridge connecting Bharatam (Pandyan kingdom) and Lanka (then called Simhala). Koti (Dhanushkodi) and Mahatittha continue to be holy, religious places during postMauryan period, from circa 200 BCEE. The region across the Rama Setu constitutes the limits of regions under the control of Rastrakuta during the age of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas, and Rastrakutas, circa 700-975. 26
Slide 27: Naval expedition to southeast Aia leading to conquest of Srivijaya and its dependencies proceeds from Gangaikondacolapuram and contacts are also established with Maldive islands circa 1000 going through the Gulf of Mannar. An Ajanta fresco depicts the arrival of King Vijaya in this region. During the period islamic expansion and changing Western views of South Asia, between 7th-12th centuries, the Rama Setu (bridge) between Rameswaram and Marqaya is also called Setu Bandha (evoking the Prakrit kavya written in the 6th century by King Pravarasena with the title Setu Bandha or Ravana Vaho). It is during this period, ca. 12th century that Setu gets bracketed and referred to as Adam’s Bridge. South Asia in the time of the Khaljis and Tughluqs, c. 1290-1390 shows the island on Lanka side referred to Mannara (later called Talaimannar). In the height of the Bhakti movement and in the time of the Khaljis and Tughluqs, c. 1290-1390, the bridge area gets referred to as Setubandha Rameswaram, as a holy tirtha. Two maps of Netherlands drawn in 16th and 17th centuries and a French map of 18th century, clearly refer to Adamsbrug (or Pont) as a functioning bridge between Rameswaram and Talaimannar. Setu Bandha is celebrated in an early talkie-movie of the same title made by Phalke. As NASA and Indian Space Research Organization images dramatically establish the land bridge between Bharatam and Srilanka, these historical references to Rama Setu come alive as an inalienable tradition of the Bharatiya civilization. The Gulf of Mannar region gets recognized as the first Marine Biosphere of South and Southeast Asia, in 1956. India of the Vedas and the Epics http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=050 Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 13. 27
Slide 28: The time of the Mauryan Empire, 321-181 B.C. http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=055 Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 18. Religious movements and culture of the pre-Mauryan and Mauryan periods, 6th-3rd century B.C. Probable migration routes of Central Asian peoples to northwestern South Asia http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=056 Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 19. 28
Slide 29: The Satavahana-Saka-Kusana age, c. A.D. 1-300 http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=058 Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 21. Religious and cultural sites of the post-Mauryan period, c. 200 B.C.-A.D. 300 http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=059 Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 22. 29
Slide 30: + South Asia in the expanding Western view of the world, 1st-3d century A.D. http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=061 Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 24. Puranic India (Bharata) http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=064 Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 27. 30
Slide 31: The age of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas, and Rastrakutas, c. A.D. 700-975 http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=068 Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 31. 31
Slide 32: Landing of King Vijaya depicted in an Ajanta fresco (painting dated to circa 5th century). The age of the Ghaznavids, Cahmanas, Later Calukyas, and Colas, c. 975-1200 http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=069 Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 32. 32
Slide 33: Islamic expansion and changing Western views of South Asia, 7th-12th centuries http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=070 Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 33. Religious and cultural sites, 8th-12th centuries http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=071 Schwartzberg Atlas, p. 34. 33
Slide 34: South Asia in the time of the Khaljis and Tughluqs, c. 1290-1390 http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=075 Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 38. South Asia in the time of the Khaljis and Tughluqs, c. 1290-1390 http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=078 Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 41. 34
Slide 35: Map of Ceylon with the Adams bridge 1656 – 1725 Ceylon is spelt as: Ceilon Title in the Leupe catalogue (NA): <Kaart van Ceilon met de Adamsbrug.> Dated: possibly 17th century, Netherlands. 1700 – 1800 Title in the Leupe catalogue (NA): <Kaart van de zuidelijke punt van Voor-Indië met Ceilon en de Adamsbrug>. http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/detail.aspx?page=dafb&lang=en&id=3204 Atlas of Mutual Heritage Facsimile of excerpt from the ""General Description of East India"" http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=089 Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 52. Hindostan or British India (New York: G. W. and C. B. Colton and Company, 1855). Map of South India and Laccadives, Bowen 1747, prepared by Netherlands. Source: David Rumsey collection Ramarcoil I. is shown (Ramarcoil means: Rama’s Temple) In a 1747 map prepared by Netherlands, Ramancoil was shown near Dhanushkodi island. In a 1788 map prepared by Joseph Banks (available in Saraswati Mahal Library, Tanjavur), Rama temple and Ramar Bridge were shown. "A map of India entitled as a map of Hindoostan or the Moghul Empire from the latest authorities inscribed to Sir. Joseph Banks Bart President of Royal 35
Slide 36: Society, which was produced by Mr. J. Rennel, a pioneer in map making on 1 st January 1788. The original print of the map (112c.m x 106c.m) is available in this Library." http://www.sarasvatimahallibrary.tn.nic.in/library/Art_collection/Maps___Atlas/maps ___atlas.html Map drawn by Joseph Parks, Australian Botanical explorer (1788) shows Ramar Bridge (Map in Sarasvati Mahal Lib., Thanjavur) In a 1804 map produced by Rennel (First Surveyor General of India), the name Ramar Bridge was changed to Adam’s Bridge. “On the north-west side of the Island, where the currents are checked by the obstruction of Adam’s Bridge and still water prevails in the Gulf of 36
Slide 37: Manaar, these deposits have been profusely heaped, and the low sandy pains have been proportionally extended; whilst on the south and east, where the current sweeps unimpeded along the coast , the line of the shore is bold and occasionally rocky. The explanation of the accretion and rising of the land is somewhat opposed to the popular belief that Ceylon was torn from the main land of India by a convulsion, during which the Gulf of Manaar and the narrow channel at Paumbam were formed by the submission of the adjacent land. The two theories might be reconciled by supposing the sinking to have occurred at an early period, and to have been followed by the uprising still in progress.” http://www.lankaweb.com/news/features/ceylon3.html Source: Ceylon - an account of the island by Sir James Emmerson Tennent, KCS, LLD Compiling exclusively to LankaWeb by Tilak S. Fernando, London This structure of close to 48 kilometers which is 3 to 30 feet deep through its course and was well above the sea level till the 15th century. The oldest recorded map that mentions of Rama’s Bridge is the Malabar Bowen Map of Netherlands which is supposed to have been made in 1747, where the map mentions no name to the bridge but has mention about a place Ramencoil. Further, the same place is mentioned again in a 1788 Map of Hindoostan available in the Sarasvathi Mahal Library, Thanjavur. http://bp2.blogger.com/_Cvup3_AVyF0/RgyZDZaXfmI/AAAAAAAAAAc/UFSENhYbig/s1600-h/1784+Map.JPG http://bp1.blogger.com/_Cvup3_AVyF0/RgyZYJaXfnI/AAAAAAAAAAk/w3Z1Cqo4emA/ s1600-h/Copper+Plate+Map.JPG Few dating attempts have been made after that. While the Sri Lankan Archeological Department dates the bridge to close to 2 million years old, Centre For Remote Sensing, Bharathidasan University dated it close to 3500 years old. The fact which is clear from these historical maps is that there was a bridge and that this was associated with Sri Rama according to the Bharatiya tradition since place 37
Slide 38: names are normally assigned by the local people. The maps are based on such information gathered from local people about place and monument names. The following map shows the 5 feet Pamban gap and Adam’s bridge linking Dhanushkodi and Talaimannar. A new map of Hindoostan, of the Bengal provinces, and of the countries lying between them and Delhi [cartographic material]: the whole exhibiting all the military roads and passes as well as the most accurate division of the British possessions in the East Indies / from the latest authorities, chiefly from the actual surveys made by May or James Rennell, Surveyor-General to the Hble. East India Company. Date: 1804. First edition published 1794. http://www.nla.gov.au/apps/cdview?pi=nla.maprm1808-b2sd&rgn=0.0649979814%2C0.4546038269%2C0.2264836496%2C0.6600744831&c md=zoomin&width=400&x=247&y=372 38
Slide 39: Textual evidences for Rama Setu (or Setu bandha) Mirrored at: http://hinduthought.googlepages.com/setuband.doc Apart from the Ramayana which has emphatic references to the construction of Setu bandha in 85 s’lokas in a separate sarga in Yuddha kanda, Mahabharata also refers to the continued protection of Nala Setu following the command of Sri Rama. Sri Rama refers in Kalidasa’s Raghuvams’a also refers to the Setu of mountains. So does Skanda Purana (III.1.2.1-114), Vishnu Purana (IV.4.40-49), Agni Purana (V-XI), Brahma Purana (138.1-40) refer to the construction of Rama Setu. The evidences -- textual, epigraphic, scientific marine-archaeological explorations -document Rama Setu (or, Setu bandha) as an ancient monument. A channel linking Tuticorin Port with Haldia can be designed without damaging this monument which is an object of national importance, indeed, a world heritage site with Ramayana episodes including the construction of Setu bandha by Nala venerated in many Ramayana's in many parts of the world. . Development imperative or abhyudayam can co-exist with protection of monuments, places and objects of national and international importance. Let us hope that Govt. of India will see it fit to realign the Setusamudram Channel to avoid impacting on Ram Setu, the heritage which should be immediately declared as a protected monument under the AMASR Act, 1958. This is a solemn duty of the State of Bharatam. Mirrored at: http://hinduthought.googlepages.com/setuband.doc Apart from the Ramayana which has emphatic references to the construction of Setu bandha in 85 s’lokas in a separate sarga in Yuddha kanda, Mahabharata also refers to the continued protection of Nala Setu following the command of Sri Rama. Sri Rama refers in Kalidasa’s Raghuvams’a also refers to the Setu of mountains. So does Skanda Purana (III.1.2.1-114), Vishnu Purana (IV.4.40-49), Agni Purana (V-XI), Brahma Purana (138.1-40) refer to the construction of Rama Setu. Epics and classics • Valmiki describes the construction of Setu in detail. For an exquisite rendering of Valmiki’s descriptions see: http://ramasetu.blogspot.com/2007/03/setubandhan-in-valmiki-ramayana.html Also: http://bridgeofram.com/ hastimaatraan mahaakaayaaH paaSaaNaamshca mahaabalaaH parvataamshca samutpaaTya yantraiH parivahanti ca Valmiki Ramayana 2-22-58 Vaanara having huge bodies, with mighty strength uprooted elephant-sized rocks and mountains and transported them by mechanical contrivances (yantraih). • Vedavyasa refers to Nalasetu and notes how the setu was protected during Mahabharata times nalasetur iti khyāto yo 'dyāpi prathito bhuvi rāmasyājñāṃ puraskṛtya dhāryate girisaṃnibhaḥ MBh. 3.267.45 .... which even today, popular on earth as Nala's bridge, mountain-like, is sustained out of respect for [Lord] Rama's command. (Nala was son of Vis’wakarma) 39
Slide 40: Kalidasa's Raghuvams’a (sarga 13): Rama, while returning from SriLanka in pushpaka vimaana: "Behold, Sita, My Setu of mountains dividing this frothy ocean is like the milky way dividing the sky into two parts" There is a kavya in Prakrit by King Pravarasena II (550-600 CE) called “Setu bandha or Ravanavaho.” "Dasamuha Vadha" (Setubandha Kavya) was written by the King Damodara Sen (5th Century). Lankavatara Sutra Lankavatara Sutra is one of the most important sutras of Mahayana Buddhism. According to the traditions of Sri Lanka, this Sutra contains the actual words spoken by Bhagwan Gautama Buddha himself, when he visited Sri Lanka. Although it is historically doubtful that Bhagwan Gautama Buddha ever physically visited Sri Lanka, nevertheless, Lankavatara, which literally means 'Arrival in Lanka', is a very important source of Mahayan Bauddha philosophy. Dr. Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, who has translated the Sutra from original Sanskrit into other languages, says, "As is the case with other Buddhist texts it is quite impossible with our present knowledge of Indian history to decide the age of the Sutra. The one thing that is certain is that it was compiled before 443 CE when the first Chinese translation is reported to have been attempted. Even with the text that was in existence before 443 CE we do not know how it developed, for it was not surely written from the beginning as one complete piece of work as we write a book in these modern days. Some parts of it must be older than others, since there is no doubt that it has many layers of added passages." Lankavatara Sutra and Ramayana share several descriptions. Even ten-headed Ravana and Kumbhakarna, Ashok Vatica, Ocean and so many other points tally. In the Sutra, Ravana is described as the king of Lanka who is desirous of learning the Truth from Buddha, and invites him across the ocean into Sri Lanka. Some parts from the first chapter of the Sutra: ...Thus have I heard. The Blessed One once stayed on the peak of Lanka in Mount Malaya on the great ocean... ...At that time, the Blessed One who had been preaching in the palace of the King of Sea-serpents came out at the end of seven days and was greeted by an innumerable host of Nāgakanyās including Śakra and Brahma, and looking at Lanka on Mount 40
Slide 41: Malaya smiled... ...Blessed One said, By the Tathagatas of the past, who were Arhats and Buddhas, the fuly Enlightened Ones, this Truth was made the subject of their discourse, at Lanka on the mountain-peak of Malaya... (Referring to Rama?) ...the Truth realisable by noble wisdom in one's inmost self, which is beyond the reasoning knowledge of the philosophers as well as the state of consciousness of the Sravakas and Pratyekabuddhas. I, too, would now for the sake of Ravana, Overlord of the Yakshas, discourse on this Truth... ...After seven nights, the Blessed One leaving the ocean, the abode of the Makaras, the palace of the sea-God, now stands on the shore... ...Just as the Buddha rises, Ravana, accompanied by the numerous Apsaras and Yakshas, Suka, Sarana, and learned men, miraculously goes over to the place where the Lord is standing...and invites Him into the city of Lanka... ..."Mahamati, accept my mansion, the company of the Apsaras, necklaces of various sorts, and the delightful Asoka garden"... ..."I give myself up to serve the Buddhas and their sons; there is nothing with me that I do not give up, for their sake; Great Muni, have compassion on me!"... ...Hearing him speak thus, the Lord of the Triple World said, "King of Yakshas, this mountain of precious stones was visited by the Great Buddhas in the past. And, taking pity on you, they had discoursed on the Truth revealed in their inmost consciousness... Throughout the rest of the chapters in the Sutra, examples of Ocean, Bridge, Raft, Boat etc. are richly used. http://ramasetu.blogspot.com/2007/04/lankavatara-sutra.html Epigraphs “…the most common reference to Rama in early inscriptions is in a verse that begins to appear commonly at the end of land-grants from the early 9th century 41
Slide 42: onwards in Rashtrakuta regions. “Common to all kings is the setu of dharma: you should abide by it moment by moment. Again and again Ramabhadra implores all future kings to do the same (Epigraphica Indica 23.212 – a record of CE 807)… Tiruvalangadu plates of Rajaraja Cola I (CE 985-1014) describe the king as surpassing Rama in military prowess and crossing the ocean with his powerful army and subduing the king of Lanka… The concept of a hill-top imprinted by the feet of Visnu is repeatedly found in the Mahabharata24 and it is suggested that a column on the hill may have enshrined Visnupada. (Vishnupadam in Srilanka was renamed as Adam’s peak just as Ramar bridge was renamed as Adam’s Bridge by James Rennel in 1804 when he was the first surveyor general of British India)… In the temples of Orissa dated from 7th to 10th centuries, Rama is represented both as an avatara of Visnu as also the hero of the Ramayana narrative. In a dasavatara group, the image of Rama is sculpted along with Balarama and Parasurama at the entrance of Manibhadresvara and also at Simhanatha. Ramayana friezes occur on several temples, such as Svarnajalesvara, Sisiresvara, Varahi and Panca-Pandava. These include scenes of Rama shooting through seven trees, killing the golden deer, abduction of Sita, fight between Bali and Sugriva and building the bridge across the ocean.” http://www.ochs.org.uk/publications/multimedia/documents/HinduTemple3_Ram ayana_HPRay_1006.doc Hampi inscription of Krishnaraya Saka 1430 (1508 CE) in Epigraphica Indica refers to Rama Setu 42
Slide 43: Skanda Purana (VI.101.1-44) describes the installation of threee Shiva linga at the end, middle and beginning of Rama Setu and making the same bridge submerged and thereby creating Setu-Teerth. This is also related in Kurma Purana (21.10-61). Garuda Purana (1.81.1-22) lists sacred places including Setubandh and Rameswar. Narada Purana (Uttara Bhag 76.1-20) extols the greatness of Rama-Setu. Adam's Bridge also called Rama's Bridge, chain of shoals, between the islands of Mannar, near northwestern Sri Lanka, and Rameswaram, off the southeastern coast of India. The bridge is 30 miles (48 km) long and separates the Gulf of Mannar (southwest) from the Palk Strait (northeast). Some of the sandbanks are dry, and nowhere are the shoals deeper than 4 feet (1 m); thus, they seriously hinder navigation. Dredging operations, now abandoned, were begun as early as 1838 but never succeeded in maintaining a channel for any vessels except those of light draft. Geologic evidence suggests that Adam's Bridge represents a former land connection between India and Sri Lanka. Traditionally, it is said to be the remnant of a huge causeway constructed by Rama, the hero of the Hindu epic Ramayana, to facilitate the passage of his army from India to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) for the rescue of his abducted wife, Sita. According to Muslim legend, Adam crossed there to Adam's Peak, Ceylon, atop which he stood repentant on one foot for 1,000 years. http://www.britannicaindia.com/duk_det_inside.asp?art_id=28 Using search terms: India, Ceylon, bridge, the Google search produces the following links. A book by Alexander Hamilton, 1744, A New Account of the East Indies: Giving an Exact and Copious Description of the Situation, P. 338 describes his visit to ‘zeloan’ (alt. spelling for Ceylon) by walking on the bridge. An article in: Asiatic Society, 1799, Asiatick Researches: Or, Transactions of the Society Instituted in Bengal, P. 52 refers to the bridge called Setband (alt. spelling, setuband like Allahband; setu-bandha), broken in 3 places. It also notes “The people 43
Slide 44: call it a bridge; or otherwise it appears to have wood growing on it, and to be inhabited.” Why did Rama build a bridge? In slokas 2-22-25 to 2-22-28, the King of Ocean says, “O, beloved Rama! Earth, wind ether, water and light remain fixed in their own nature, resorting to their eternal path. Therefore, I am fathomless and my nature is that it is impossible of being swum across. It becomes unnatural if I am shallow. I am telling you the following device to cross me. O, prince! Neither from desire nor 44
Slide 45: ambition nor fear nor from affection, I am able to solidify my waters inhabited by alligators. O, Rama! I shall make it possible to see that you are able to cross over. I will arrange a place for the monkeys to cross me and bear with it. As far as the army crosses me, the crocodiles will not be aggressive to them.” Valmiki describes construction of this bridge between Slokas 2-22-50 and 2-22-72 “I am a son born of Visvakarma’s own loins. I am equal to Viswakarma. This god of Ocean has reminded me. The great ocean spoke the truth. Being unasked, I have not told you my details earlier. I am capable of constructing a bridge across the ocean. Hence, let the foremost of monkeys build the bridge now itself. Then, being sent by Rama, hundreds and thousands of monkey heroes jumped in joy on all sides towards the great forest. Those army-chiefs of monkeys, who resembled mountains, broke the rocks and trees there and dragged them away towards the sea. Those monkeys filled the ocean with all types of trees like Sala and Asvakarna, Dhava and bamboo, Kutaja, Arjuna, palmyra,Tilaka, Tinisa, Bilva, Saptaparna, Karnika, in blossom as also mango and Asoka. The excellent monkeys, the forest animals lifted and brought, like Indra’s flag posts, some trees with roots intact and some others without roots. From here and there the monkeys brought Palmyra trees, pomegranate shrubs, coconut and Vibhitaka, Karira, Bakula and neem trees. The huge bodied monkeys with mighty strength uprooted elephant-sized rocks and mountains and transported them by mechanical contrivances. The water, raised up due to sudden throwing of mountains in the sea, soured upward towards the sky and from there again, gushed back. The rocks befalling on all sides perturbed the ocean. Some others drew up strings a hundred Yojanas long (in order to keep the rocks in a straight line.) Nala on his part initiated a monumental bridge in the middle of the ocean. The bridge was built at that time with the cooperation of other monkeys, of terrible doings. Some monkeys were holding poles for measuring the bridge and some others collected the material. Reeds and logs resembling clouds and mountains, brought by hundreds of monkeys, lead by the command of Rama, fastened some parts of the bridge. Monkeys constructed the bridge with trees having blossom at the end of their boughs. Some monkeys looking like demons seized rocks resembling mountains and peaks of mountains and appeared running hither and thither. Then, a tumultuous sound occurred when the rocks were thrown into the sea and when mountains were caused to fall there. On the first day, fourteen Yojanas of bridge were constructed by the monkeys speedily, thrilled with delight as theywere, resembling elephants. In the same manner, on the second day twenty Yojanas of bridge were constructed speedily by the monkeys of terrific bodies and of mighty strength. Thus, on the third day twenty-one Yojanas of the bridge were constructed in the ocean speedily by the monkeys with their colossal bodies. On the forth day, a further of twenty-two Yojanas were constructed by the dashingmonkeys with a great speed. In that manner, on the fifth day, the monkeys working quickly constructed twenty-three yojanas of the bridge up to the other seashore. That Nala, the strong and illustrious son of Visvakarma and an excellent monkey built the bridge across the sea as truly as his father would have built it. That beautiful and lovely bridge constructed by Nala across the ocean the abode of alligators, shone brightly like a milky way of stars in the sky.” Dr Subramanian Swamy has, in April 2007, written to Mrs. Ambika Soni, Union Minister for Culture, in connection with the status of the Rama Setu under the Ancient Monuments and Archeological Sites and Remains Act, and raising fundamental legal, administrative, quasi-judicial and cultural issues. He has urged Ambika Soni to initiate action in order to notify officially the Rama Setu as an Ancient 45
Slide 46: Monument. The Rama Setu is a formation of shoal stones of 30 kilometers long and 3 kilometers wide which served for many centuries as foot-bridge from Dhanushkodi on the coast of Tamilnadu to Sri Lanka. It is a very old historic formation, and hence would come within the expression 'ancient monument'. The Brahma Sarovar at Kurukshetra was on a similar consideration declared by the Punjab and Haryana High Court as an ancient monument. Judged by Ambika Soni's answer to an Unstarred Question in Rajya Sabha in the current Budget Session, it is clear that the Government have so far not conducted any study to determine the nature, antiquity, and heritage value of the Rama Setu. However, at the non-governmental level, as also on the basis of Hindu scriptures, it is a widely held opinion that Rama Setu facilitated Sri Rama and his army to cross the Palk Strait, as described in Valmiki Ramayana and other scriptures. That such a formation per se exists has been admitted by Ambika Soni in answer to the said Rajya Sabha Unstarred Question, which answer is confirmed by US National Aeronautics and Space Agency through satellite mapping and imaging. The Punjab and Haryana High Court in a historic order delivered in 1993 declared the Brahma Sarovar at Kurukshetra as an 'Ancient Monument'. They declared Brahma Sarovar as a very, very old historic formation and hence qualified for notification as an Ancient Monument. The cultural, spiritual and religious considerations had weighed with the Punjab and Haryana High Court in passing this order of timeless significance. These considerations seem to be irrelevant to the Islam-embracing, Christianity-coveting, Hindu-hating and Nation-destroying minority UPA Government in New Delhi nominally led by an unelected and nominated Prime Minister. Among the holiest of water tanks in India, the Brahma Sarovar in Kurukshetra is an important national and international tourist centre in Haryana State. It has been the cradle of Indian civilization from times immemorial. Any responsible Union Minister for Culture, who respects the cultural, spiritual and religious traditions, feelings and sentiments of more than 800 millions of Hindus in majority in India, would have declared the Rama Setu Bridge as an Ancient Monument on par with Brahma Sarovar in Kurukshetra on the same analogy and for similar and equally forceful and valid reasons. http://www.sulekha.com/groups/postdisplay.aspx?cid=731607&forumid=756919 Britannica Encyclopadia: Adam's Bridge also called Rama's Bridge, chain of shoals, between the islands of Mannar, near northwestern Sri Lanka, and Rameswaram, off the southeastern coast of India. The bridge is 30 miles (48 km) long and separates the Gulf of Mannar (southwest) from the Palk Strait (northeast). Some of the sandbanks are dry, and nowhere are the shoals deeper than 4 feet (1 m); thus, they seriously hinder navigation. Dredging operations, now abandoned, were begun as early as 1838 but never succeeded in maintaining a channel for any vessels except those of light draft. Geologic evidence suggests that Adam's Bridge represents a former land connection between India and Sri Lanka. Traditionally, it is said to be the remnant of a huge causeway constructed by Rama, the hero of the Hindu epic Ramayana, to facilitate the passage of his army from India to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) for the rescue of his abducted wife, Sita. According to Muslim legend, Adam crossed there to Adam's Peak, Ceylon, atop which he stood repentant on one foot for 1,000 years. 46
Slide 47: Early coins and copper plate inscription of ca. 900 CE refers to ‘setu’ There is remarkable epigraphical and numismatic evidence authenticating the tradition of referring to Rameswaram as Setubandha Rameswaram, that is, as the place from where the Setu was built to link Bharatam and Srilanka in the days of Sri Rama. The earliest epigraphic reference to Murukan in Tamilnadu is found in the Tiruttani (Velanjeri) plates of Pallava Aparajitavarman (c. 900 Common Era). Subrahmanya who was probably the original mūlavar in the Tiruttani temple at the time of Aparājitavarman, but now kept in the prākāra of the main shrine (c. 9th cent. AD). This is 'early Chōla' according to L’Hernault F. (Nagaswamy R. 1979. Thiruttani and Velanjeri Copper Plates. State Dept. Of Archaeology, Tamilnadu. Madras. See: L’Hernault F. 1978. L’Iconographie de Subrahmanya au Tamilnad, Institut Francais d’ Indologie. Pondichery, p.111, ph. 63.) The copper plates indicate that Aparajitavarman went to Setutirtha. Translation of Section 14 of Velanjeri copper plate of Paraantaka Chola I issued in the 25th year (that is, about 930 Common Era) is as follows: “This ruler (Paraantaka) performed tulaabhaara with gold acquired by his valour, at the beautiful Sriraamatirtha, where the ablest of monkey flocks built the bridge; at the Kanyaatirtha which subdued the southern quarters, and at Srirangam beautiful by the areca groves, where Sri Vishnu reclines on his serpent couch.” Sanskrit text in grantha script of this section reads as follows: “ramie sriramatirthe kavivara nikaraih baddhasetu prabandhe kanyaatirthe jitaanaamadaritamapi dis’e mandane dakshinasyaah srirange caahis’alyaas’ayitamurabhidi s’yaamapoogaabhiraame hemnaaviryaancitena kshitipatikarot yastulaabhaarakarma” 47
Slide 48: Udayendiram plates of Cola king Parantaka I (AD 907-955) refer to his adoption of the title Samgramaraghava like Rama. Pre-modern coinage of Srilanka (Ceylon) 48
Slide 49: Setu is a word inscribed on some coins, clearly indicating that the ruler was expected to safeguard the setu ‘Rama’s bridge’. Traditional design of Lanka standing King Type copper massa of the Jaffna Arya Chakravartis circ 1284-1410, of Codrington SETU type I (1) SPECIFICATIONS Denomination Alloy Type Diameter Thickness Weight Shape Edge DieAxis One massa Copper Struck 18.2 mm mm 4.0 gms Round Plain O° Codrington 88 ;Mitchiner #860 Obverse : Standing king with hanging Lamp or trident on left and group of spheres on right, surmounted by crescent. Reverse : Seated king on left facing right with Tamil legend SETU vertically below his arm. Setu coins were previously atributed to the Setupati princes of Ranmnad. Codrington attributes them strongly to the Jaffna Arya Chakravartis. This type I(1) is allied to the late Chola copper coin with Tamil Setu being substituted for the Nagari Sri Rajaraja See also other SETU type I (3) coin and later during decline of kingdom - 1462-1597 - type II (6) coin. Text edited from * Ceylon Coins and Currency: H. W. Codrington, Colombo, 1924. Chapter VI Medieval Lanka - "Setu" Coins - Type I(1), Page 75 * Oriental Coins: Michael Mitchiner, London, Hawkins Publications, 1978. The coin was scanned at 600dpi and displayed at 300dpi. It was obtained in 2000 August from Rajah Wickremesinhe an Author and collector in Colombo, Lanka. http://lakdiva.org/coins/medievalindian/setu_I-1_massa_cu.html Traditional design of Lanka standing King Type copper massa of the Jaffna Arya Chakravartis circ 14621597, of Codrington SETU type II(6)(iii)variant a debased Type with several variations indicative of the decline of the kingdom. 49
Slide 50: SPECIFICATIONS Denomination One massa Alloy Type Diameter Thickness Weight Shape Edge DieAxis Copper Struck 19.0 mm mm 4.03 gms Round Plain O° Codrington 95 ;Mitchiner #868 Obverse : Standing king with crown consisting three dots, line and dot ; body broad, arms raised. Below body a line following the contour at each end of which is a dot. Below and separated from this line hangs the Dhoti To the left two semicircles with dot above each disposed virtically ; to right lamp, the stem of which consists of a large ball between two smaller balls, and the head of a horizontal line curved upwards at either end enclosing a flame. On either side of figure two dots. All within cicle of dashes. Reverse : Bull couchant facing left. Crescent and sun above. Tamil legend SETU below ; large kombu. To right and left of bull a group of three dots. See also earlier SETU - 1284-1410 - type I (1) coin and type I (3) coin. Text edited from * Ceylon Coins and Currency: H. W. Codrington, Colombo, 1924. Chapter VI Mediaeval Lanka - "Setu" Coins - Type II(3)(iii)-Varient, Page 77 * Oriental Coins: Michael Mitchiner, London, Hawkins Publications, 1978. The coin was scanned at 300dpi and displayed at 300dpi. It was obtained in 2001 December from O. M. R. Sirisena an expert collector in Colombo, Lanka. http://lakdiva.org/coins/medievalindian/setu_II-6_massa_cu.html Sethu Bull coins In the book, ‘Yaalpana Iraachchiyam’ (1992), Prof. S. Pathamanathan in his article on ‘Coins’ notes: Early kings of Jaffna, sometimes referred to as Ariyacakravarti, used names such as Segarajasekaran and Pararajasekaran, and used the epithets Singaiyariyan (Lord of Singaingar, the earlier capital of the Kingdom of Jaffna), Setukavalan (Guardian of Setu or Rameshavaram) and Gangainadan (belonging to the country of the Ganga). Their emblems were a recumbent bull -nanthi-, a Saiva symbol, and the expression 50
Slide 51: Setu, indicating the place of their origin, Rameshvaram. The term setu was also used as an expression of benediction. http://www.rootsweb.com/~lkawgw/jaffna.html Several types of coins categorised as Sethu Bull coins are found in large quantities in the northern part of Sri Lanka. Three types of this series are illustrated below. The obverse of these coins have a human figure flanked by lamps and the reverse has the Nandi (bull) symbol, the legend Sethu in Tamil with a crescent moon above. The obverse is similar to the contemporary Massa coins issued by the Kalinga and Pandyan rulers of the central Sri Lankan kingdom of Dambadeniya. The reverse of the Massa coins have the image of a seated man with the ruler's name such as Vijayabahu, Nissankamalla, Parakramabahu etc in Devanagari characters. A Setu coin The reverse of the Setu coin The reverse of the A Setu Bull coin Setu Bull coin A Setu Bull coin The reverse of the Setu Bull coin http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaffna_Coinage Setupati coinage, 16th and 17th century Obverse: Sri Ganapati, seated. Reverse, in Tamil, SeTu-Pa-(Ti missing). 51
Slide 52: Other textual references on Rama’s bridge Marco Polo, 1854, The travels of Marco Polo, the Venetian: the translation of Marsden revised…, H.G. Bohn, p.380, foot note 3. (Title of the Marsden’s edition was: “The travels of Marco Polo, a Venetian, in the thirteenth century; being a description, by that early traveler, of remarkable places and kings in the eastern parts of the world. Translated from the Italian, with notes, by William Marsden, FRS, London…” Rama’s bridge is also called Setu-bandha is clear from the reference to SetabundRameswara in the following account of the formation of the bridge: Thomas Horsfield, 1851, A catalogue of the mammalian in the Museum of the Hon. East-India Company, East India Company Museum, p.5 That Rama’s bridge was used as a reference point to define the expanse of Bharatam (as in the log Aasetu Himachalam used by Survey of India) is clear from the following quote: 52
Slide 53: William Jones, 1801, Discourses delivered before the Asiatic society, p. 29; also mirrored at: Asiatick Researches: Or, transactions of the society instituted in Bengal, for inquiring into…, Calcutta, Asiatic Society, p. 423 Arnold Hermann, 1833, Historical researches into the politics, intercourse, and trade of the principal nations of antiquity, Translated from the German, Oxford University, p.89 William Yates, 1846, A dictionary of Sanscrit and English, designed for the use of private students and of Indian colleges and schools, Baptist Mission Press, p.821 The entry, samudraaru or samudraarah is given the meaing: Rama’s bridge. 53
Slide 54: William Fordyce Mavor, 1807, Universal history, ancient and modern, Oxford University, p.216 A.J. Valpay, 1825, The Classic Journal, Vol. XXXI, Cl.Jl., No. LXII, Oxford, p.26 Charles O’Conor, British Museum, Earl of Bertram Ashburnham, 1819, J. Seeley, p.107 Clements Robert Markham, 1862, Travels in Peru and India: While superintending the collection of chinchona plants and seeds in…, J. Murray, p.423 54
Slide 55: Charlotte Speir Manning, George Scharf, 1856, Life in Ancient India, Oxford University, p. 117: Lodovico de Varthema, George Percy Badger, John Winter Jones, 1863, The travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India…, Published for the Hakluyt Society, (Translated from the original Italian edition), p.185 Entry: INDIA, INDIES In a copperplate of the 11th century, by the Chalukya dynasty of Kalyāna, we find the expression "from the Himālaya to the Bridge" (Ind. Antiq. i. 81), i.e. the Bridge of Rāma, or 'Adam's Bridge,' as our maps have it. And Mahommedan definitions as old, and with the name, will be found below. Under the Hindu kings of Vijayanagara also (from the 14th century) inscriptions indicate all 55
Slide 56: India by like expressions. (Henry Yule, Hobson-Jobson, a glossary of colloquial angloindian words and phrases) http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgibin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:191.hobson Tiruvalangadu plates of Rajaraja Cola I (AD 985-1014) describe the king as surpassing Rama in military prowess and crossing the ocean with his powerful army and subduing the king of Lanka.(David T. Sanford, Ramayana Portraits, Vidya Dehejia edited, The Legend of Rama, Marg Publications, 1994: 54.) Deopara Inscription (ca. 1100 CE) records that Samantasena, the head-garland of the Brahma-Ksatriyas proceeded towards Rameshvara-Setubandha and subdued the wicked despoilers of the Laksmi (Wealth) of Karnata. (Metcalfe in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol XXXIV, part 1, and afterwards critically edited by Prof Kielhorn in Epigraphia Indica, Vol 1.307-11). 56
Slide 57: Lady Marjorie Pentland, 1928, The Rt. Hon. John Sinclair, Lord Pentland, GSCI: A memoir, Methuen (Reprinted in 2004 as JW Bond, Somerset Playne, Arnold Wright, Playne Wright Somerset Staff, Southern India: its history, people, commerce, and industrial resources, Asia Educational Services). Rama Setu: Kulasekara Perumal, Kambar (Tamil) 57
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Slide 90: Sri Rama’s Sethu in Literature- A truth 90
Slide 91: Sri. TV Rengarajan South Zone Organizing Secretary, Itihasa Sankalan Samiti -Tamilnadu Annal Kakutthan Aazhpunal Sethuvai, Kanninal orukal Kanda manavan Ennil Velvi Tavam Punal Yattirai, Panni Muttriya Panpudaiyan Aro !! - Sethu Puranam - Sethu Sarukkam - Verse 16 “One who sees the ‘sethu’ built by the great Rama, who is also called Kakutthan once, will perform countless yagnas, tapas and tirtha yatras and will remain a man of great strength and character”, says Sethu Purana. 1.1. The word ‘sethu’ means ‘anai’, ‘seikarai’1. Tamil Akaramudali gives the meaning ‘anaikkattu’ (dam) to the word ‘sethubandhanam’2. Kamban, who wrote the Tamil classic ‘Kamba Ramayanam’ also refers as ‘sethubandhanappadalam’3. points make it clear that this was built by human beings. 1.2. ‘Sethu’ is the waterbody in which SriRama purified himself from ‘Brammahatti dosha’ on his return from Lanka after killing Ravana. It is located in the sea in Rameshwaram area near ‘sethubandhanam’. Abhidhanakosam4 calls All these ‘Sethubandhanam’ as ‘Tiruvanai’ - a dam or bridge built by Sri Rama and the Vanara Sena (Monkey’s army) in the sea to cross over it and reach Sri Lanka. Further, Rameshwara Talapuranam calls all these happenings as “Sethu Puranam”. 1.3. ‘Somalay’5, a great Tamil scholar says ‘sethu’ was the dam built by Sri Rama in order to crossover to Srilanka with his huge vanara sena (monkey army) with the help of monkey leaders. 1.4. ‘Tiruppullani’ - which is at a distance of 6 miles from Ramanathapuram (Ramnad) is 6 known as ‘Pullaranyam’, ‘Pullanai’, ‘Adisethu’, ‘Tiruvanai’ and ‘Sethukkarai’ 1.5. ‘Namadheepa Nikhandu’ names ‘seikarai’ as ‘seikarai’, ‘kurambu’, ‘sethu’, and ‘kulai’7. It also names Rameshwaram as ‘Sethupuram’ and ‘Ramasuram’8. 91
Slide 92: 1.6. The area surrounding ‘sethu’ - the dam built by Sri Rama on sea is called as ‘sethunadu’. Kalaikkalangiyam (Tamil encyclopedia) district’ as ‘Sethu Nadu’. 1. Tamil - Tamil Akaramudali - Editor M.Shanmukam Pillai - Tamil Nadu Text Book Society, A Government of Tamil Nadu Publication - First Edition - Jine 1985. 2. Valmiki Ramayanam - Yuddha Kandam - Sarukka 22 - Sethubhandha 3. Kamba Ramayanam - Yuddha Kandam - Sethubhandhanappadalam 4. Abhidanakosam - The Tamil Classical Dictionary - Yazhppanattu Manippai A.Muthuthambi Pillai - Asian Educational Services - First Published 1902 5. Namadu Tamil Nadu Series 9 - Ramanathapuram Mavattam - Somalay - Pari Nilayam Chennai, May 1972 - P.33 6. Pullai Andati - Thanjai Saraswati Mahal Publication 116 - 1967- P.2,Price 1.25 7. Namadeepa Nikandu - Idavargam - P.159 - verse 54 (Nurpa 530) 8. Namadeepa Nikandu - Idavargam - P.153 - verse 33 (Nurpa 509) 9. Kalaikkalangiyam - Volume 5 - Tamil Valarcci Kazhakam, Chennai - First edition - 1958 - P.207 9 refers to ‘Ramanathapuram Sethu bandhanam in epics 2.1. Valmiki10 describes the construction of ‘Sethu’, which was built in a record time of 5 days under the leadership of Nala, the son of Viswakarma, in his Ramayana in 25 verses. Rama asks Nala to construct a dam on the sea to Srilanka, as advised by Samudraraja. Nala agrees and Vanaras who looked like high mountains went in all directions and brought mountain like rocks and stones. They brought trees, either cut or uprooted. The vanara sena uprooted rocks which resembled huge elephants, using machines and brought them to the seashore with the help of carrier vehicles. “The dam constructed by Nala who was as skilled and talented as his illustrious father, looked like milky way” says Valmiki. The joyous roar raised by the vanaras on completion of the dam silenced even the deadliest noise of the mighty ocean.11 92
Slide 93: 2.2. Valmiki further describes in another verse in the words of Rama returning with Sita in a Pushpaka Vimana in ‘Yuddha Kanda’ of Adyatma Ramayanam as follows: “Here is the Sethubandhana worshipped by three worlds. It is a holy place. It has the ability to relieve all the greatest of sins. It is here ‘Mahadeva ’ [Lord Siva] extended his whole hearted support to me earlier.”12 2.3. After initiating the construction ‘Rameshwara’, and of Sethu, Rama installed the idol of worshipped. Then he said, “Those who worship Rameshwara by observing fasting and prayer, those who perform ‘abhiseka’ with the holy water of Ganga brought by them from Kasi - all their sins will be thrown in to the mighty ocean. They will attain ‘moksha’ (Mukti) without any doubt”, says Adhyathma Ramayanam about Sethu bandhanam and its holiness.13 2.4. Ananda Ramayanam14 describes the beginning of the construction of the dam as follows: ‘Rama, who hails from Raghu Dynasty, installed the idol of Lord Vinayaka after explaining about the dam to Nala. Then Rama worshipped the 9 stones installed by Nala, representing the 9 planets. He then conveyed his willingness to Hanuman about installing a wonderful linga in his name where the three seas meet. 2.5. “The mountain like dam ‘Nalasethu’ was built as per the orders of Rama” says Vyasa in his Mahabharatha15. 10. Hastimathran Mahakaya: Basha Namsa Mahabala: Parvathamsa Samuthpatya 22 - yanthrai: parivahantisa - Valmiki Ramayanam - Yuddha Kandam Sarukkam Verse 58 11. Valmiki Ramayanam - Sarukkam 22 - Slokas 51 - 75 12. Yetat drushyate tirtham sagarasya mahatmana: Sethubhandha idikyathan Trilokyenapi poojitham\\ Yetat pavitram paramam mahapataka nasanam Atra purvam Mahadeva: Prastha Maharotaprabhu: Yuddha Kandam - 126.20.1 13. Adyathma Ramayanam - Yuddha Kandam 14. Ananda Ramayanam - Sarakandam (Sarukkam 10 - verse 69) 15. Mahabharatham 3.267.45 - Valmiki Ramayanam - 93
Slide 94: Puranas 3.1. Bhagavatha Puranam says that Balarama went to the dam which can purify even the greatest sins. ‘Samudhram Se Bhagavatha . 3.2. Padma Puranam17 says, “this sethu was built by me within 3 days with the help of Vanara Sena.” 3.3. Skanda Purana Samsara bandhas. Thus, Epics and Puranas say that the dam Sethu was built in the middle of the sea by Rama and say that it is a holy one. Literature 4.1. There is a reference to Sethu in Tamil Sangam classic Akananuru 19 18 16 Mahamath Mahapataka Nasanam’, Says says the mere vision of Rama Sethu will relieve one from which compares the sound made in a village to that of the sound heard from the sea near ‘Thriuvanaikkarai (Adi Sethu), in Pandya Kingdom which was built by Rama, the great warrior. (Annex 16 provides instances of reference to Ramayana and Setu in Sangam literatures, an authentic evidence for the tradition related to Setu as a sacred tradition and a heritage of a civilization). 4.2. Periyavaccan Pillai, one of the Vaishnava Acharyas, writes as “Malaiyal Anaikatti Marukarai eri”20 in his Pasurappadi Ramayanam. 4.3. ‘Sethu Puranam’ also known as ‘Sethu Mahatmiyam’ - a sangam classic which contains45 Sarukkas and 3438 verses and which was written by Niramba Alagiya Singar (16th Century) published by and Verified by Nallur Arumuga Navalar of Jaffna and Saivapprakasa Vidyasala Dharmaparipalakas. Sri Chidambaram Ponnusamy Thevar of Ramanathapuram Samasthanam took up the efforts to publish this work to which Sodashavadanam Subbiraya Chettiyar, a deciple of Tiricirapuram Mahavidvan Meenatchisundaram Pillai has contributed the ‘Sirappuppayiram’. that, he has sung in praise of Sethu as - ‘ Titara oduum Sethu Manmiyatthai’. Another poet Kumarasami Pillai has mentioned as ‘Sethumanyamana vadanul thannai’. In the prayer song of ‘ “Tuya Seer In Sethu Puranam’ the dam built by sri Rama has been mentioned as Ramasethu”. 94
Slide 95: Sethu’s greatness and its holiness has been sung in 64 verses in the chapter ‘Sethu Sarukkkam’. The necessity to built Sethu for Sri Rama has been explained in Sethu Vanda Sarrukkam’. After explaining’ ‘Sethu Madhava Sarukkam’, Sethu Yatthirai 21 Sarukkam’, the benefits reaped in merely thinking about Sethu and taking the holy dip are detailed in 151 verses. Tala Puranam mentions about ‘Sethu puranam’. (Volume I) in Tamil literature also 16. Bhagavathapuranam 10th Skandam - Sarukkam 79 17. Padmapuranam - Srustikandam - Sarukkam 38 18. Skandapuranam - Sethu Mahatmiya Kandam - Sarukkam 1 19. Venverkavuriyar tonmudukodi Muzhangirum Bouvam Irangum Mundrurai velpor Raman arumaraik kavittha Palvizh alampola oliyavindandru iv vazhungal ure - Akananuru - Kalirt - Padal 70 20. Vizhineer Ilankai aruli, saranpukka kuraikadalai adalampal marukaeidu, tollai vilangu ani seyya malayal anaikatti marukarai eri Pasurappadi Ramayanam - Yuddhakandam Periyavaccan Pillai 21.Tamizhil Talapuranangal (Part 1) Dr.V.R.Madhavan - Tamil University - Thanjavur - P.193 - Tirumala Tiruppati Devasthana Aid - 1995 4.4. It remained a traditional practice of Tamilians to give lectures in praise of ‘Sethu Puranam’. Arumuga Navalar, who was one among those, has also written it in It was printed and published by Sri M.R.M.S. Ramalinga Pillai of the name of ‘Sethu Makattuvam’ (Rameshwara manuscripts. Rameshwaram for 12 anas in Manmiyam). This “Sethu Puranaprasangam’ which begins with Suta Puran is narrating the story to Sounakadi Rishis in Naimisaranyanm is a dialogue based one22. 4.5. “Anaiyalai Sulkadal Andradainadu Vazhiseithavan” 23 says Thiru Gnana Sambandar in his Tevaram. 4.6. Thirunavukkarasar in his Tevaram sings the construction of the dam by Sri Rama as “ Kadalidai Malaikal Tammal Adaittu Mal Karumam Muttri”.24 All the above references from epics puranas and literature - written in different languages, in different times stand testimony to the fact that the dam ‘Sethu’ was built as per the orders given by Sri Rama to Nala. 95
Slide 96: 5.1. Sethu Nadu: The Samashthana of Ramanathapuram (Ramnad) was called as ‘Sethu Nadu only because of the very existence of ‘Sethu’. The king of this samashthana was known as Sethupati 25 , ‘Sethu Kavalar [Lord of the Cause way]. Thirupullani which is at a Ramayana says distance of 6 miles southeast of ‘Ramnad’ is known as Adisethu. Sri Rama appointed people from Maravar community to protect ‘Sethu’ and the people who come to take a holy bathe in it. constructed a town near ‘Thirupullani’. It was named as “Mugavai” as it stood as the gateway to reach ‘Sethu’. Later it One of the kings of ‘Sethupati dynasty’ became Ramanathapuram26. It is obvious that the kings of ‘Sethu’had longcherished tradition. Among them, : Adiraghunatha Sethupati, Jeyatunga earliest ones of the Sethupati dynasty27. The names ‘Rahunatha’ and ‘Sethupati’ are attached to them, because of their relationship with Sri Rama [Who is also called Raghunatha] and the dam built by him. All the kings of this dynasty are called as ‘ Sethupati’ by the people of It stands as a clear testimony to the existence of Rama Raghunatha Sethupathi,Ativeera Rahunatha and 6 others are mentioned as the Sethupati Varaguna Raghunatha Sethupati successive generations. Sethu and also to the point that all the kings of the ‘Sethupati’ dynasty ruled this area with great devotion and dedication28. 22. Inaiya Sethu Neeradinum, teendinum, idutanai egngnandru ninaivu seikinum kankinum, ketpinum, neengidun tuyarellam anaiyum atthanmayidum mayavan arul seyyum ac Sethutanai nikarppatondrillaiyam - tavaneri tazhaikkum andanarkalo - Sethubhandhana Makattuvam 23. Sanpanta Tevaram - verse 6 24. Thirunavukkarasar Tevaram - verse 3 25. Kalaikkalangiyam Volume 5 Tamil Valarccikkazhakam, Chennai - First Edition 1958 26. Rameshwaram (The Sacred Island) by Major H.A.Newell - Indian army - II edition 27. Abhidana Cintamani - A.Singaravelu Mudalaiyar - V.1628 Ramnad - Page 126, by S.Thiruvenkatachari 28. Kizhavan Setupati - M.Manoharan, 1983, Setupatikal Varalaru - Chiranjeevi 1981 The Setupatis of 96
Slide 97: 5.2. Things have changed dramatically since the inception of Ramanathapuram district in 1910. The finalization of manual about the political, geographical, industrial, agricultural, economical growth, besides information about population its distribution, transport, revenue, ports, holy places got a final shape after passing through several stages in 1968. It was released only in 1972 after making necessary changes. The foreword to the district manual of Ramanathapuram released by the then Chief Minister of Tamilnadu, Sri M. Karunanidi is note worthy. “The task of collecting and publishing the district manuals was given top priority after independence and was given preference in the five year plans. District manual of today is not only a guide furnishing mear information. The It is of great help containing several important topics and can be used very much as a source of great reference. A manual throws light on our age and traditions and long cherished culture. It serves as a mirror which reflects our society. Once having a thorough knowledge of the manual we can march forward keeping our head high and be proud of our well nurtured culture and traditions, which has been passed on to the successive generations by our ancestors. Only the passage of time will reveal the necessity of such manuals, which help us to know about our country and people. By publishing the district manual of Ramanathapuram district, a commendable work has been completed. It is all the more commendable since it contains detailed information about the district and its people. I am sure that this manual will be of immense help to the rulers and people who are involved in welfare projects and research work. 14.06.1972 The above cited literary and historical evidences prove the existence and the greatness of ‘Rama Sethu’, which are acceptable to even today’s politicians. knowing its greatness it becomes a necessity to take all steps to protect it. Once -M. Karunanidhi 97
Slide 98: Annex 7 Scientific evidence for ancient human activity in the project area Scientific evidences point to human activity in ancient times on both sides of Ramsetu as found by Dept. of Earth Sciences and ocean technologists of Bharatam. This area should be declared a protected monument under the Protection of Monuments Act and declared as a World Heritage site by the Govt. of India and advised to UNESCO… [quote]… During the glacial Maxima, the sea level was about 130 m lower than what is today. This is evidenced both on the east and west coast of India, where submerged Corals occur around 1 to 2m water depths and they are clear indicators of near coastal zone… However, during the last ice age (18,000 year BP) the entire area from India to Sri Lanka and further south and southeast were contagious land due to the highly lowered sea level. As and when there were major melting of glaciers both from the mountains as well as from the Antarctic area, the sea level was rising. These features were well recorded and studied by several submerged Coral formations all over the world. About 7,300 years BP the sea level in the southern part of India was about 3.5 m above the present level. This has been deciphered by Dr.P.K.Banerjee, who studied Corals that found in the land part as of Pamban, Rameswaram, and Tuticorin etc. Subsequently the sea level went down and rose +2m above than what is today between 5000 to 4000 years B.P. .. In almost of all the boreholes between 4.5 and 7.5m the borehole intersected hard formations, which have been found to be calcareous sand stones and corals. It is to be pointed out here that Corals are comparatively less dense, compact and somewhat easy to carry. The Corals normally grow atop compact to hard formations for the purpose of stability, and as the sea level rises, the Coral colony grows up vertically to maintain water depth of 1 to 2 m, which is essential for their survival. It is always observed that these Corals have continuous vertical growth like Lakshadweep, Andaman's, and Gulf Of Mannar Natural Park. These have always been found to grow on hard rock bottom. In the case of Adams bridge area we observe that the Coral formations hardly occur 1 to 2.5m in length and resting on loose marine sands. Most of these coral rock pieces are seem to be rounded pebbles of corals. These things appear to point these coral rock pieces and pebbles have been transported and placed in these areas. Since the calcareous sand stones and Corals are less dense than normal hard 98
Slide 99: rock and quite compact, probably these were used by the ancients to form a connecting link to Sri Lanka, on the higher elevations of the Adams bridge ridge and this is analogous to modern day causeway. In support of these observations there are many archaeological and geoarchaeological evidences on the south east coast of India around Rameswaram, Tuticorin and the western coast of Sri Lanka. There are raised Teri formations that supported a rich assemblage of mesolithic – microlithic tools indicating the presence of strong human habitation and activity in these areas as early as 8000 to 9000 years B.P and as recent as 4000 years B.P. On Sri Lanka side there are indications of human habitation extending to late Pleistocene (about 13,000 B.P) based on bone and fossils of human and animal form. All these point to a flourishing human activity on both side of Adams Bridge and probably when the sea levels were just right the link between India and Sri Lanka could have been established. [unquote] Source: Dept. of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India (March 2007) http://hinduthought.googlepages.com/ 99
Slide 100: Annex 8 Geological and Geophysical Perspective of the Ramsetu Bridge S.Badrinarayanan Director (Retd), Geological Survey of India, Formerly, coordinator, Survey Division, National Institute of Ocean Technology, Ministry of Earth Science, Pallikkaranai, Chennai. Preamble There has been lot of interesting debate on the Ramsethu Bridge said to be connecting south-eastern part of India with Sri Lanka. Most of the arguments are based on assumptions and partial data obtained from NASA satellite images. No doubt these images are astounding as they bring out the marine geomorphology of the area. But as stated by NASA official themselves “Remote sensing images from orbit cannot provide direct information about the origin or age of a chain of island and cannot determine whether humans were involved in producing any of the patterns seen”. However several other images including close range aerial photographs, bathymetric charts etc were examined. The observations given below are based purely on hard field work including geological and geophysical surveys coupled with logging and interpretations of several cores and boreholes carried out in the area. Introduction In order to understand the subject a little amount of geological information is essential. The earth has not always been very warm or cold. There have been periods of extreme cold climate that occurred in the geological past wherein most of the surface of the earth was covered with vast quantities of ice and these periods are referred to as ICE AGES. The recent one occurred during the late Pleistocene age eighteen thousand years before present. During this period the sea level was lowered by about 130m than what is today. Due to this the land area was extending far greater distances than what is today. The Indian subcontinent was extending far beyond Sri Lanka. Subsequently due to global warming and other causes there have been periodic rises in sea level submerging several of these additional areas. About 7300 BP there was a major spurt in sea level rise which resulted in submergence of several areas all over the world. Geology of the area The Indian side of the land mass adjoining the Ramsethu originates from the southeastern end of the Rameswaram Island. The island itself is a long linear sandy terrain providing calcareous sand stone and occasional coral formation. This area was devastated by a major cyclone in 1956 when part of the area was lost to the sea. The Rameswaram Island connects the main land through the Pamban area. Further to the west charnocites and granites are exposed. In order to understand the geology and the structure of the area in the marine domain several surveys were carried out onboard a research vessel with underwater sensor. These included multibeam echo sounder survey, sub bottom profiler survey, side scan sonar and magnetic survey. The entire area was sampled by deploying 100
Slide 101: vibro core, mainly to the north of the Adams Bridge (Ramsethu). These surveys generally required at least 4m of water surface so that the equipments are not damaged. The bathymetric survey brought out the fact that the Adams bridge, with a shallow ridge varying in width from 1.6 to 4km. This part of the area could not be surveyed due to these factors. However it was seen from the geological and geophysical surveys that the Adams Bridge is a fault zone rising suddenly from the Bay of Bengal side to the north. This scarp like feature is the shallowest part of the Adams Bridge. Even though it is mostly submerged in water there are series of Small Island like features which project above the sea surface. In all about 10 boreholes have been drilled along this ridge up to the international boundary. Out of the ten boreholes six boreholes were in the sea. The result of the bore logging clearly showed about 1.5m to 4m marine sand followed by 1.5 to 2.5m of boulders of calcareous sand stones and coral followed again by marine sand to various depths end at continuous compact formation. It is a well known fact that the coral reefs can only form in clean and unpolluted water and these being marine organisms required firm and compact formation as foundation. The presence of loose marine sand below these clearly indicates that these are not natural and are transported. Unless somebody has transported and dumped them these could not have come there. Some of the boulders are so light they could float on water. Apparently whoever has done it has identified it as light and strong boulders to make it easy for transportation. Since the boulders are strong they can withstand lot of weight. There are corals that are present on land in Rameswaram, Pamban and Tuticorin areas. A study of them and dating them clearly show that the age of the coral is about 7300 years and the sea level at the time was 4m above the present day sea level. Then there has been a lowering of sea level and between 4 to 5 thousand years BP the sea level was about 1.5m above present day sea level. The 1.5 to 2.5m thick zone of corals and rock presently occurring at shallow depths in the sea atop the crustal portion of the Adams Bridge appeared to be an ancient causeway. The ancients appeared to have taken advantage of the crustal portion of the ridge to avoid dumping of lot of volume of rocks and boulders and also utilized less dense but compact rocks and boulders so that these could be carried easily to greater distances and at the same time strong enough to withstand pressure from above both by human as well as sea forces. The Adams Bridge is a wonderful divide separating the turbulent Bay of Bengal in the north and the calm and tranquil waters of Gulf of Mannar to the south. Due to the tranquil condition very rare species of corals and other sea organisms grew in the Gulf of Mannar, whereas the species are completely absent in the Bay of Bengal side. The turbulent tide and the associated sediments caused by the severe cyclone that occur every year in the Bay of Bengal are prevented by the ridge of the Adams bridge and there by protect the delicate conditions in the Gulf of Mannar. The dredging and opening of the Adams Bridge in all likelihood may cause the sediments and turbulent tide to enter the tranquil Gulf of Mannar and choke and destroy the delicate coral island. As an alternative dredging in the Pamban or nearby areas and bypassing the Adams bridge could be favourably considered like other inter sea canal (Panama Canal) locks could be provided both in the palk bay side and Gulf of Mannar side so that such calamities could be prevented. Acknowledgement 101
Slide 102: The author thanks D. Venkata Rao, Project Director and B.Sasisekaran, Scientist ‘D’ of National Institute of Ocean Technology for the help extended in the preparation of the paper and power point presentation. Illustration: Proposed Navigational Channel Alignment – Sethu Samudram Project- Drilled Borehole Locations. Differences between Rama Setu and terraces near Kodiakkarai This is in response to Kalaignar Karunanidhi’s comments of May 22, 2007 about a possible land-link between Kodiakkarai (Point Calimere) and Jaffna (Yaashpaanam). It may be seen from the following article by GG Vaz et al., that the formation of Rama Setu was due to subsidence (The full article is annexed): Current Science, Vol. 92, No. 5, 10 March 2007, pp. 671-675 Subsidence of southern part of erstwhile Dhanushkodi township, Tamil Nadu – evidences from bathymetry, side scan and underwater videography The causes for the formation of Rama Setu from Dhanushkodi are entirely different from the fault lines at work near Kodiakkarai resulting in accumulation of shoals. It is a welcome development that Kalaignar is talking geology. It will be necessary to entrust the review to a team of scientists from many disciplines as recommended by the Ramanathapuram Judge before attempting to damage or destroy Rama Setu. It should be noted that the Gulf of Mannar is a clearly identified ocean, distinct from the Bay of Bengal because of the existence of Rama Setu (Adam’s bridge). Such a land-bridge does NOT exist between Kodiakkarai and Jaffna. That such a land-bridge may be formed in the future is speculation assuming that the sea regressions and 102
Slide 103: sedimentations will follow a secular pattern. The ocean currents and counter-currents in the Gulf of Mannar are far too complex to make such speculative conjectures. Kodiakkarai is also called Point Calimere. It is a wild life sanctuary. The depth of the ocean between Dhanushkodi and Talaimannar is on an average three fathoms, while the depth between Point Calimere and Kanakesanturai is over eight fathoms. Only a lower sea level by over 8 metres would have connected the land between Bharatam and Srilanka through this route. Explanations offered for the existence of a land bridge between Dhanushkodi and Talaimannar are: eustatic changes and rising coastlines occurring concurrently. (Akkaraju Sarma, 1978, Paleoecology of Coastal Tamilnadu, South India: chronology of raised beaches, in: Proceedings, American Philosophical Society, Vol. 122, No. 6, p.416). The conclusions of this study are: “There are several marine terraces in Tamilnadu whose elevations have been mentioned. The younger marine terraces probably are late Pleistocene formations. The higher marine terraces are of marginal archaeological interest. The tectonically derived (uplift-associated) terraces are of extreme archaeological interest. Regions with spot elevations of 3 and 6 m are especially interesting, as the archaeological material in these provided clues to chronology of the uplift. The 3 and 6 m uplifted areas were found to be associated with archaeological sites ranging from the second century B.C. to the first century A.D., and sites extending from the seventh century A.D. to the thirteenth century A.D. These terraces and uplifted areas are all overlain by quaternary deposits in the districts of Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli, and Ramnad. Some of these deposits are composed of corals, limestones mixed with organic debris, and marine shells. In the coastal Tanjore district, these coastal terraces are uniquely different, being mostly alluvial sediments deposited over beach ridges. In South Arcot and Chingleput, beach sands predominate which, as such, obliterate the uplift evidences.” In this study which attempts to study palaeoecology of regressions of the sea in the past, one point stands out: the distinct differences in the coral terraces of the Rama Setu (between Dhanushkodi and Talaimannar) area and the area between Kodiakkarai (Point Calimere) and Jaffna (Yashppaanam). 103
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Slide 105: The coast from Pamban gap to Kodiakkarai is in the sandy shallows of Palk Bay. This ancient lighthouse at Kodiakkarai is said to have been built by Chola kings about 1000 years ago. This could be the port from which ships might have sailed towards Indonesia and Straits of Malacca during the days of King Vijaya. This lighthouse was destroyed by the tsunami of 2004. The ancient names for Kodiakkarai on the the shallow waters of Palk Straits were Tirumarai, Vedaranyam Kaadu. The forest (kaadu) commences from ‘Agastiyam Palli’ in Vedaranyam. “The swamp suports a major commercial fishery and also nursery for many marine fishes. It is an important spawning ground for shrimps (Penaeus indicus, P. monodon), crabs (Scylla serrata) and fishes.The site supports the IUCN red-listed birds Pelecanus philippensis, Phoenicopterus minor, Limnodromus semipalmatus, and Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus, the mammal Antilope cervicapra and the reptiles Chelonia mydas, Lepidochelys olivacea, Eretmochelys imbricata. This ecosystem regularly supports about 30,000 flamingos and tens of thousands of other waterbirds and also supports over 1% of the individuals in the south Asia population of Pelecanus philippensis (200-300 individuals).” http://www.casmbenvis.nic.in/sdnp/convention.htm Point Calimere, another name for Kodiakkarai is associated with Ramayana. “The highest point of the cape, at an elevation of 4 m., is Ramarpaadam, meaning, ‘Rama’s feet’ in Tamil. A stone slab which bears the impressions of two feet, and is presumed to be the place where Lord Rama stood and reconnoitered Ravana’s kingdom in Sri Lanka, which lies 48 km. to the south.” http://mycountryonline.com/about/Calimere.htm Mirror: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calimere One geomorphological view is that sedimentation explains the accretion of shoals near Kodiakkarai. http://www.geocities.com/sethushipcanal/Geomorphology.htm The tsunami of Dec. 26, 2004 which struck the coast near Nagapattinam has significantly 105
Slide 106: altered the sea-depths near Kodiakkarai. http://www.recoverlanka.net/docs/Ignorance.pdf Journal of Geodynamics Volume 31, Issue 5, July 2001, Pages 481-498 A qualitative assessment of seismic risk along the Peninsular coast of India, south of 19°N Pronab. K. Banerjee a, G. G. Vazb, B. J. Senguptac and A. Bagchic a C/1, Greenwood, 315B, Upen Banerjee Road, Calcutta 700, 060, India b Marine Wing, Geological Survey of India, Vishakhapatnam 530023, India c Marine Wing, Geological Survey of India, Calcutta 700 016, India Received 12 July 2000; revised 10 May 2001; accepted 10 May 2001. Available online 13 August 2001. Abstract Many earthquakes have been recorded from the coastal margin of the Indian peninsular shield during the last 200 years. Largely made up of Precambrian assemblages with variable cover of Jurassic to Quaternary sedimentary rocks and Cretaceous-Eocene volcanics, the peninsular shield was long held to be aseismic. Recent measurements, however, show that this continental fragment is being pushed northeastward by the Carlsberg and Central Indian ridges; and the Indo-Myanmar subduction zone is exerting vigorous slab pull towards the east. Repeated cycles of sea level change during the Quaternary have also induced continuing hydro-isostatic adjustment due to variable melt water loading in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian sea. All these forces produce space-time fluctuations of strain around many small to large faults, which occur in the upper crust of the shield. Some of the faults have been intermittently active (during the past 100 kyr); others were active earlier. Although the Shillong plateau and the associated hill ranges of northeastern India and Myanmar are subject to the maximum seismic hazard, the peninsular coast is also vulnerable to intermittent seismicity. We present illustrative evidence of some active faults, which are recognisable (a) on coastal land by displaced Pleistocene weathered cover, hot springs, leakages of native mercury and allochthonous geochemical anomalies of base metals and (b) offshore below the inner shelf by horst-shaped uplifted segments and intra-formational slump folds on and below the top shallow seismic (3.5 kHz) reflector. On the other hand, there are long stretches of the east coast at Vishakhapatnam and Manappad Point, which do not show active faults. Step-like marine terraces, which occur up to+6 m above the low tide level (LTL) preserve records of relative sea level fluctuations during the Holocene and the Last Interglacial. In such sectors, absence of tectonic disturbance during the last 100 ka is also corroborated by lateral continuity of shallow seismic reflectors below the inner shelf over many kilometers. Since authentic historical (200–1000 years B.P.) records of seismicity along the Peninsular coast are virtually unavailable, the likely recurrence interval between earthquakes in each sector cannot be gauged. We, therefore, propose a scale of seismic risk, based on geometry of the mappable faults and available seismic records of the last two centuries. These could be used in combination to rank the densely populated coastal tracts sector-wise. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V9X-43RC9TP3&_user=10&_coverDate=07%2F31%2F2001&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort 106
Slide 107: =d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=201 0131e5698e1f0aa21720c4da5008e Current Science, Vol. 92, No. 5, 10 March 2007, pp. 671-675 Subsidence of southern part of erstwhile Dhanushkodi township, Tamil Nadu – evidences from bathymetry, side scan and underwater videography G. G. Vaz1,2,*, M. Hariprasad1, B. R. Rao1 and V. Subba Rao1 1Operations: East Coast-II, Marine Wing, Geological Survey of India, NH-5, Marripalem, Visakhapatnam 530 018, India 2Present address: Operations: West Coast-II, Marine Wing, GSI, Kurekal Buildings, Edappally, Cochin 682 024, India The southern part of erstwhile Dhanushkodi township, Tamil Nadu, experienced subsidence and submergence during AD 1948–49. Shallow bathymetric and sidescan surveys together with sampling and underwater videography confirm the extent and quantum of subsidence. The studies reveal that a vertical tectonic movement (fault) parallel to the coastline with a displacement of ~ 5 m led to the subsidence of the southern part of the township. This fault movement has occurred 57 years ago and hence could be the latest neo-tectonic movement ever recorded along the east coast of India. Keywords: Dhanushkodi, neo-tectonic activity, subsidence, submergence, vertical displacement. THE coastal zone, the link between ocean and land margins, constantly experiences several dynamic processes, which at times result in various hazards to human beings. Such processes include erosion, accretion, upliftment, subsidence,submergence and their combined influence. The extreme southeastern part of Rameswaram Island (Figure 1), known as Dhanushkodi Foreland, is wellknown in Hindu mythology and is of religious importance. Highintensity storms and cyclones have frequently attacked this area and led to vast material and human losses in the past, particularly the cyclone of AD 1964. The erstwhile Dhanushkodi township (presently in ruins) underwent subsidence during the mid-twentieth century. This communication documents the marine geo-scientific investigations at Dhanushkodi area and provides evidences for coastal subsidence in the southern part of the erstwhile Dhanushkodi township in the Gulf of Mannar (Figure 1) and geological reasons for subsidence during AD 1948– 49. Bathymetry, side scan and sampling surveys provide an insight into subsidence through underwater videography. The southeastern tip of peninsular India assumes much importance from a geological point of view. However, till date, geological studies around Dhanushkodi are meagre, except for limited geomorphological observations by Geographical Information System (GIS)-based animation1 and IRS-ID LISS III data around Adam’s Bridge Islands2. Due to the shallow nature of the sea, no research vessel could attempt to negotiate the area around Dhanushkodi for marine geoscientific studies. Geomorphologically, the onshore area is known for its extensive stretch of longitudinal sand dunes and sandy beach. The Geological Survey of India made systematic geomorphological studies of Rameswaram Island and drilling operations from Dhanushkodi to Adam’s Bridge Islands, and also obtained information through enquiries from the local elderly people who were eyewitnesses to the subsidence. The studies reveal that the southern side of erstwhile 107
Slide 108: Dhanushkodi township facing the Gulf of Mannar underwent severe erosion and subsidence between AD February 1948 and January 1949. Consequently, the southern part of the township comprising places of worship, residential areas, roads, etc. over a width of ~ 500 m along the N–S direction and a stretch of 7 km along WNW–ESE direction (Figure 1) was destroyed by wave attack and submerged to the depth of 5 m. Following this destructive event, then the District Administration has dumped granite blocks and made a series of wooden piles down to ~ 10 m all along the coastline, in order to arrest further wave attack and eventual loss of land. The granite blocks and wooden piles were subsequently covered by littoral sand. Field studies and local enquiries confirm that the whole Dhanushkodi township prior to subsidence (i.e. AD 1948–49) was at an elevation of > 3 m above the present sea level. The unaffected northern part of the township even now remains at ~3 m above sea level. The sequence of events suggests that submergence of the township might have taken place due to the fast rate of subsidence of the southern part (presently under the sea). Additional observations, subsequent to local enquiries, aroused a keen interest to evaluate the geological reasons, if any, for such rapid rate Figure 1. Map showing area of study and subsidence. of subsidence. Hence, detailed surveys were conducted in the offshore area of about 12 ´ 2 km between Kothandaramar temple and Dhanushkodi tip (Figure 1), by engaging a locally available mechanized wooden boat of 8 m length, fitted with portable echosounder. Bathymetric observations were made continuously along shore-perpendicular and parallel tracks at 250 m interval, whereas between Mukundarayarchatram (locally known as Mundramchatram) and Dhanushkodi tip, the tracks were maintained at 125 m interval. This network enabled collection of closely spaced bathymetric data from the reported area of subsidence. The shot points at every two-minute intervals were recorded using hand-held (Micrologic) Global Positioning System (GPS). The tidecorrected depths by harmonic interpolation were plotted on the base chart. The bathymetric contour map (Figure 2) and a 3D computer model of the seafloor (Figure 3) indicate a scarp face aligned parallel to the coast from Mukundarayarchatram to Dhanushkodi tip, indicating the actual extent and magnitude of subsidence (Figures 2 and 3). It is evident that a fracture (fault) in the offshore has occurred along WNW– ESE direction parallel to the coastline at ~ 2.5 m of the present water depth. The vertical displacement of the inferred fracture (fault) is estimated to be ~ 5 m (Figures 2 and 3). This fracture (fault) detected at the offshore zone appears to be sympathetic to the regional lineament known as Vaigai lineament (WNW– ESE) along Vaigai river course in the adjoining mainland. The area of subsidence is characterized by pinnacled surface (Figure 3), probably projections of civil structures such as residential blocks, places of worship, etc. According to the local divers, the scarp face is of 3–5 m relief and observations on samples picked up by divers from the scarp face confirm the occurrence of coarse-grained beach rock. Seabed samples collected by van Veen grab between 1 and 10 m water depths at 100 m grid revealed that the area is generally covered by a veneer of coarse to medium shelly sand and silty sand with a few small pockets of clayey sand and clay beyond 6 or 7 m depths. There is paucity of sediment input into the offshore domain. Further, due to submergence of coastal zone by faulting, the shoreline migrated landward, the pre-existing coastal plain deposits were reworked by near-shore waves and current activity to form a widespread deposit of shelly sand and silty sand over the submerged township and facilitated filling-up of depressions between features or structures. Hence, only the relatively elevated structures are practically devoid of sediment cover. Due to depth and draft constraints, side-scan survey was carried out along three shore-parallel tracks between 5 and 10 m depths by deploying GSI Research Vessel R.V.Samudra Shaudhikama. The records exhibit linear features and elevated hard objects that could possibly be roads and collapsed residential buildings, respectively (Figure 4 a– d). On the basis of bathymetric records, potential locations were selected and skilled 108
Slide 109: divers from local fishermen community were deployed to retrieve materials from the zone of subsidence. Construction materials like bricks, chiseled coral blocks, clay tiles, asbestos roof sheets, etc. were recovered. Subsequently, locally available wooden boats (8 m length) and professional underwater divers (Diving Consultancy, Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu) with underwater still and movie cameras attached with onboard monitor, were engaged for systematic and detailed underwater videography. For every diving operation, a marker buoy was tied on the location of objects or structures for detailed video recording and retrieval of materials. Locations of every buoy were recorded on-board using hand-held GPS. On reaching the important spots, the divers manually cleaned the objects, videographed and retrieved materials of significance. Underwater video observations confirmed one main road with collapsed houses of the erstwhile Dhanushkodi township at 5 to 7 m depth. The above observation matches well with the area of subsidence picked up from the bathymetric map prepared exclusively for this purpose. A number of objects located and retrieved during the underwater videography could be further classified into (i) E– W-aligned road, rectangular brick-wall structures suggesting collapsed houses/buildings, (ii) circular and semi-circular brick walls considered as the full or a portion of ring wells, (iii) walls constructed by chiselled coral blocks (Figure 5 a), (iv) well-chiselled and faceted pillars made from shelly sandstone, possibly parts of temple structure and (v) a variety of household articles such as metal tumbler, broken frying pan, sanitary iron pipes, etc. (Figure 5 a and c). The granite blocks and wooden piles laid along the coastline to arrest further erosion have now been exposed due to recent seasonal coastal erosion (Figure 5 d). After collection of all scientific data, local Tamil Nadu State Land Records were consulted for old survey records pertaining to this area, to gather additional information about the past habitation. Comparison of the maps of Dhanushkodi village prepared by State Revenue authorities prior to (AD 1948–49) and after the (AD 1950) subsidence has facilitated demarcation of the actual area of subsidence by survey numbers, names of the important buildings, etc. (Figure 6). Land records prepared after 1950 provide yet another proof of subsidence of the southern part of erstwhile Dhanushkodi township. The observations mentioned above substantially prove the subsidence and submergence of erstwhile Dhanushkodi township. Reportedly, when sea retreated to about 500 m from the present coastline prior to the arrival of recent tsunami wave in December 2004, the subsided and submerged part of the township got exposed for a while. This rare sight has been witnessed by the local fishermen community. The local inhabitants believed that coastal erosion was the main causative factor for the destruction and subsidence of the township in mid-twentieth century. The present marine geo-scientific observations, however, confirm a vertical movement parallel to the coastline with a displacement of ~5 m in the offshore segment (Figures 2 and 3), which actually led to the subsidence of the southern part of the township. Such neotectonic movements at various places along the east coast of India have been reported3–6. Normally, neotectonic movements in the coastal zone may be discerned by the study of palaeo-strandlines. However, the area of study does not show any indication of such strandline positions, except a wide Aeolian belt along the coast. Under this scenario, other critical sets of data pertaining to nearshore bathymetry, side scan, sampling and underwater videography have provided valuable clues in support of the subsidence phenomenon through neo-tectonic activity. Usually it is not an easy task to confirm the evidence of Holocene faulting within the unconsolidated sediments. The present evidence of faulting off erstwhile Dhanushkodi township is documented with geo-scientific clues from offshore field evidences, and hence stands out as a unique study. The fault throw of ~5 m discerned in the study area may be only a surficial manifestation of a deep-seated and major faulting at depth, whose actual and destructive effect has not reached the surface. The faulting has understandably caused severe loss to the coastal zone, its 109
Slide 110: inhabitants and their properties. This event of subsidence along with field evidence of faulting does not warrant any dating method to prove the age of this faulting, because according to eyewitnesses and landsurvey records, this geological event occurred during AD 1948–49. Most likely, this Dhanushkodi fault is the latest neotectonic movement ever recorded along the east coast of India. 1. Ramasamy, S. M., GIS-based animation of changing terrain features in Rameswaram Island, Tamil Nadu, during the last century. Proc. Indian Natl. Sci. Acad. Part A, 2003, 69, 251–256. 2. Bahuguna, A., Nayak, S. and Deshmukh, B., IRS views the Adam’s Bridge (bridging India and Sri Lanka). J. Indian Soc. Remote Sensing,2003, 31, 237–239. 3. Loveson, V. J., Rajamanickam, G. V. and Anbarasu, K., Remote sensing application in the study of sea level variation along the Tamil Nadu coast. In National Seminar on Sea Level Variation and its Impact on Coastal Environment (ed. Rajamanickam, G. V.), Tamil University, Thanjavur, 1990, pp. 179–197. 4. Vaz, G. G. and Banerjee, P. K., Middle and late Holocene sea level changes in and around Pulicat Lagoon, Bay of Bengal, India. Mar. Geol., 1997, 139, 261–271. 5. Vaz, G. G., Mohapatra, G. P. and Hariprasad, M., Geomorphology and evolution of barrier-Lagoon coast I part of north Andhra Pradesh. Mem. Geol. Soc. India, 2002, 49, 30–40. 6. Banerjee, P. K., Vaz, G. G., Sengupta, B. J. and Bagchi, A., A qualitative assessment of seismic risk along the Peninsular coast of India, south of 19°N. J. Geodyn., 2001, 31, 481–498. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. We thank P. C. Mandal, Director General (Rtd.), GSI and P. C. Srivastava, Dy. Director General (Rtd.), Marine Wing, GSI for their keen interest and permission to take up this work. We also thank B. K. Saha, Sr. Dy. Director General, Marine Wing, GSI, Kolkata for support and permission to publish this paper. Encouragement given by Dr B. L. Narasayya, Director (CT), Marine Wing, GSI, Visakhapatnam is acknowledged. http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/mar102007/671.pdf Journal: Geo-Marine letters, Vol. 2, Nos. 3-4, September 1982, pages 171-177 William Vestal1 and Allen Lowrie1 (1) Geology and Geophysics Branch-Code 7220, U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office NSTL Station, 39522, MS Abstract Two suites of slumps from opposite margins of the Gulf of Mannar, between Sri Lanka and southern India, have met and coalesced. The “Eastern Comorin” Slump is the more coherent of the two with a length of 70 to 100 km. The “Colombo” side slump consists of two to four blocks 15 to 35 km in length. Both slump-suites decrease to the south. A paleoslump underlies the western toe of the East Comorin Slump at a depth of some 800 meters. To the south, an enlarging and deepening submarine canyon marks the area of slump coalescence. http://www.springerlink.com/content/m602j3k746342lnl/ Bathymetry (sea-depth) map near Rama Setu http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/2minsurface/1350/45N045E.jpg These images were generated from the ETOPO2v2 (2006) database. ETOPO2v2 was created at NGDC from digital databases of seafloor and land elevations on a 2- 110
Slide 111: minute latitude/longitude grid (1 minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile, or 1.852 km). http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/2minrelief.html See also: http://tuticorinport.gov.in/geo_report.doc http://hinduthought.googlepages.com/kodiakkarai.doc 111
Slide 112: Annex 9 A Catalog of Tsunamis in the Indian Ocean By B. K. Rastogi and R. K. Jaiswal, National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad, India, pages 128-143 http://www.sthjournal.org/253/rastogi.pdf SUMMARY A catalog of about ninety tsunamis in the Indian Ocean has been prepared from 326 BCE to 2005 AD. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries tsunamis have occurred once in three years or so. Sunda Arc is the most active region that has produced about seventy tsunamis. The source zones of the remaining tsunamis are AndamanNicobar islands, Burma-Bangladesh region in the eastern side, while Makran accretion zone and Kutch-Saurashtra region are in the west. These zones are subduction zones or zones of compression. GENERAL DESCRIPTION Tsunamis are not as common in the Indian Ocean as in the Pacific. As compared to average eight tsunamis per year in the Pacific, Indian Ocean has one in three years or so. A catalog of tsunamis presented here includes about ninety tsunamis in the Indian Ocean out of which over 70 tsunamis are from Sunda. Some 20 tsunamis are reported from rest of the Indian Ocean, though source region of five of them may be in Sunda arc. Hence, eighty percent of the tsunamis of the Indian Ocean originate in Sunda arc covering Java and Sumatra. Figure 1 shows the locations of significant tsunamis and Figure 2 shows the annual number. Table 1 gives the list of tsunamis from Sunda arc and Table 2 from rest of the Indian Ocean. The Sunda belt extends northward to Andaman-Nicobar Islands where a few tsunamis have originated. Further north, Bangladesh-Myanmar coast has produced some well-documented tsunamis. Makran coast in the northwest is known to have generated at least one major tsunami. Karachi-Kutch coast region has also produced some possible tsunamis. Cause of tsunamis is mostly thrust-type earthquakes with vertical uplift in subduction zones and zones of compression. The seismic gap areas along the subduction zones are possible sites of future great earthquakes. Along the Sunda arc, great earthquakes of magnitude 8.5 or greater can repeat every two centuries at a site but smaller tsunamigenic earthquakes can repeat every few decades. Along Sunda Arc volcanic eruptions have also given rise to large tsunamis. There appears to have been a hiatus in tsunami generation in this region, with a significant gap in events occurring from around 1909 through 1967 (Tsunami Laboratory, Novosibirsk, Russia). The Carlsberg spreading ridge or old oceanic ridges like Chagos Ridge and Ninetyeast Ridge with normal faulting can give rise to local tsunamis. Many of the tsunamis and their effects are described in some details. However, tsunamis from Java region are not described in detail as they did not affect the countries other than Indonesia. TSUNAMIS FROM SUNDA ARC REGION Newcomb and McCann (1987) compiled historical records of earthquakes and tsunamis from Sunda arc region. Heck (1947), Berninghausen (1966), Litzin (1974) and USGS catalogs list some more…The Sumatra part of the Sunda arc had been much more active than Java part. Detailed description of some of the significant earthquakes and the tsunamis caused by them are given below: 112
Slide 113: Earthquakes/Tsunamis in Sumatra 11 Dec 1681. “Strong earthquake” shook the Sumatra mountains near Mentawai Archipelago and a seaquake was observed. 3 Nov 1756. Many houses collapsed in several towns of Sumatra near to Enganno Is. No tsunami was reported. No date, 1770. Severe damage in the same general area as the 1756 event, but a tsunami was reported. 10-11 Feb 1797, Mw 8.2. A large earthquake and tsunami was observed in ports on the coast of the mainland and on the Batu Is. Waves of great force near Padang (0.99S 100.37E) The town was inundated and more than 300 fatalities occurred (Heck, 1947). 18 Mar 1818. A very strong shock associated with both tsunami and seaquake near to Enganno Is. 24 Nov 1833. The great earthquake of magnitude > 8.7 had maximum intensities and generated a tsunami over 550km along the south central coast of Sumatra that also caused much damage to the coast. Numerous deaths occurred in W. Sumatra. This earthquake ruptured the plate margin from the southern island of Enggano to Batu. 5-6 Jan 1843, Mw 7.2. The earthquake caused severe damage, liquefaction and many fatalities in Nias Is. A tremendous tsunami wiped out towns on the east coast of Nias and mainland. The damage and associated tsunami were very localized. The village of Barus (2N 98.38E) and Palan Nias (Nias Is. 1.1N 97.55E) reported large waves on two days. 11 Nov 1852. Earthquake near Nias generated seaquake. 16 Feb 1861. A great earthquake of magnitude 8.5 ruptured a major segment of the plate boundary in northern Sumatra. The tsunami that was generated extended over 500km along the arc. Tsunami destroyed southern towns of Batu Is., and a town on the southwest side of Nias experienced a tsunami height of 7m. The earthquake and tsunami caused 1000s of fatalities at west coast of Sumatra. Two aftershocks on March 9 and April 26, 1861 also caused tsunamis. There was no major shock for almost 50years. The historic record shows that the strongest tsunami was associated with the volcanic eruption of Krakatau in Indonesia on 27 Aug. 1883. The 35m-high tsunami took a toll of 36,000 lives in western Java and southern Sumatra. Tsunami waves were observed throughout the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, the American West Coast, South America, and even as far away as the English Channel. On the facing coasts of Java and Sumatra the sea flood went many kilometers inland and caused such vast loss of life that one area was never resettled and is now the Ujung Kulon nature reserve. Subsequent local tsunamis in the Sunda Strait were generated by the 1927 and 1928 eruptions of the new volcano of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau) that formed in the area. Although large tsunamis were generated from these recent events, the heights of the waves attenuated rapidly away from the source region, because their periods 113
Slide 114: and wavelengths were very short. There was no report of damage from these more recent tsunamis in the Sunda Strait (George, 2003). According to ancient Japanese scriptures, the first known supercolossal eruption of Krakatau occurred in the year 416 A. D. – Some have reported it to occur in 535 A.D. The energy of this eruption is estimated to have been about 400 megatons of TNT, or the equivalent of 20,000 Hiroshima bombs. This violent early eruption destroyed the volcano, which collapsed and created a 7 km wide submarine caldera. The remnants of this earlier violent volcanic explosion were the three islands of Krakatau, Verlaten and Lang (Rakata, Panjang, and Sertung). Undoubtedly the 416 A.D. eruption/explosion/collapse generated a series of catastrophic tsunamis, which must have been much greater than those generated in 1883. The time of tsunami with wave height of several meters that affected Tamilnadu in India matches with this early Krakatau eruption. However, there are no other records to document the size of these early tsunamis or the destruction they caused. Subsequent to the 416 A.D. eruption and prior to 1883, three volcanic cones of Krakatau and at least one older caldera had combined again to form the island of Rakata. 4 Jan 1907, Ms 7.6. This event caused tsunamis that devastated Simeuleu, Nias and Batu Islands of Sumatra and extended over 950km as measured by tide gauges. 25 June 1914. M7.6 earthquake destroyed buildings in southern Sumatra. No tsunami was reported. 1935: Mw 7.7. Tsunami in SW Sumatra. The 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake of magnitude 9.3 generated 30m-high tsunami when upward slip of the ocean floor was up to 15m along a 1300 km long and 160 to 240km wide rupture. It was the deadliest tsunami killing about 300.000 people in 13 countries situated all around the Indian Ocean. The earthquake had created large thrust ridges, about 1500m high, which collapsed in places to produce large landslides, several kilometers across. The force of displaced water was such that blocks of rocks, massing millions of tons apiece, were dragged as much as 10km. An oceanic trench several kilometers wide was also formed. The run up in the India was 5m or less. Magnitude 8.7 great Sumatra Earthquake of 28 Mar. 2005 with an upward movement of 2m of seafloor in an area of 400kmx100km generated locally damaging 4m-high tsunami that struck nearby islands and coastal Sumatra and was recorded by tidal stations in the Indian Ocean (asc.India.org). The earthquake and tsunami killed 665 people. The tsunami struck Nias Island with wave heights of 4-5 m. A 34m wave struck the islands of Banyak and Simeulue and the Singkil district of Sumatra. According to the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) tide gauges in the Indian Ocean recorded minor wave activity in the Australian Cocos Island (10-22cm), the Maldives (10cm), and Sri Lanka (25-30cm). TSUNAMIS THAT AFFECTED THE INDIAN REGION AND VICINITY Though rare, tsunamis have hit India earlier. The tsunamis in the Indian region and vicinity are listed in Table 2. The oldest record of tsunami is available from November 326 BCE earthquake near the Indus delta /Kutch region that set off massive sea waves in the Arabian Sea. Alexander the Great was returning to Greece after his conquest and wanted to go back by a sea route. But a tsunami due to an earthquake of large magnitude destroyed the mighty Macedonian fleet (Lisitzin, 1974). 114
Slide 115: Poompuhar is a town in the southern part of India in the state of Tamil Nadu. It was a flourishing ancient town known as Kaveripattinam that was washed away in what is now recognized as an ancient Tsunami in about 500 CE. This time matches with the Krakatoa explosion. There is mention of tsunami effect in scriptures at Nagapattinam in 900 CE that destroyed a Budhist monastery. According to literature available in the library of Thondaiman kingdom in Puduckottai, Tamilnadu, it was during the reign of Raja Raja Chola that waves had washed away the monastery and several temples and killed hundreds of people. There is evidence of this in Kalaki Krishnamurty’s book “Ponniyin Selvan- The Pinacle of Sacrifice”. In the chapter “The Sea Rises”, the author explains how the sea had risen very high and the black mountain of water moved forward. The sea inundated warehouses and sheds and began to flow into the streets. Ships and boats seemed suspended in mid-air, precariously poised on the water peaks. The book also describes how an elephant was swallowed by the gushing water. Tsunami has been observed in the North Indian Ocean on the Iranian coast from a local earthquake between 1 April and 9 May 1008 (Murty et al., 1999). An earthquake occurred during 1524 A.D. off the coast of Dabhol, Maharashtra and. a resulting large tsunami caused considerable alarm to the Portuguese fleet that was assembled in the area (Bendick and Bilham, 1999). A tsunami is known to have occurred in the Bay of Bengal on April 2, 1762, caused by an earthquake in Bangladesh – Myanmar border region. The epicenter is believed to be 40 km SE of Chittagong, or 61 km N of Cox's Bazaar, or 257 km SE of Dhaka, Bangladesh. The shock caused severe damage at Chittagong and other areas on the eastern seaboard of the Bay of Bengal. The Arakan coast was elevated for more than 160 km. The quake also caused a tsunami in the Bay of Bengal. The water in the Hoogly River in Kolkata rose by two meters. The rise in the water level at Dhaka was so sudden that hundreds of boats capsized and many people were drowned. This is the earliest well-documented tsunami in the Bay of Bengal (Mathur, 1998). 1819 June 16, India, Kutch, Mw 7.8. Severe earthquake with large changes in the elevation of the land. The town of Sindri (26.6N 71.9E) and adjoining country were inundated by a tremendous rush from the ocean, and all submerged, the ground sinking apparently by about 5m (Macmurdo,1821) An earthquake on 11 November 1842 near the northern end of Bay of Bengal caused a tsunami by which waters of the distributaries of the Ganges Delta were agitated. Boats were tossed about as if by waves in a squall of wind. 1845 June 19, India, Kutch. “The sea rolled up the Koree (Kori creek, 23.6N 68.37E) (the east) mouth of the Indus overflowing the country as far westward as the Goongra river, northward to the vicinity of Veyre, and eastward to the Sindree Lake,” (Nelson,1846) On October 31, 1847 the small island of Kondul (7°13’N 93°42’E) near Little Nicobar was inundated (Heck, 1947; Berninghausen, 1966) by an earthquake whose Mw, magnitude could have been >7.5 (Bilham et al. 2005). Mihir Guha (http://www.freejournal.net), former Director General of the India Meteorological Department, informed that a tsunami struck Sunderbans (Bangladesh) in May 1874, killing several hundred thousand people. It was result of an earthquake in Bhola district. Earthquake and tsunami both played havoc in vast th st th 115
Slide 116: areas of Sunderbans, 24-Prganas, Midnapore, Barishal, Khulna and Bhola. Even Kolkata felt its impact. It was the same year that the meteorological center in Alipore was set up. However, no written record of such an earthquake or tsunami is available. Other minor tsunamis of height up to 2m hit the east coast of India in 1842 and 1861 (from Sumatra), 1881 (from Car Nicobar), 1883 (Krakatau), 1907 (Sumatra) and 1941 (Andaman). The 1881 Andaman earthquake of Mw7.9 caused 1.2-m high tsunami. Indonesian earthquake of 1907 registered about a meter high tsunami in India. Madras Port Trust recorded a 2m high tsunami due to the eruption of the Krakatau volcano in Indonesia on 27 Aug 1883. Andaman earthquake of Mw7.7 in 1941 registered a 1.5m high tsunami. Some of these tsunamis are described below: An earthquake of magnitude Mw 7.9 occurred at Car Nicobar Island on 31 Dec. 1881. A tsunami was generated by this earthquake in the Bay of Bengal. Though the runups and waves heights were not large, its effects were observed in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands and were recorded on the east coast of India. A meter high wave was recorded at Port Blair on South Andaman Island (Berninghausen, 1966). In the Nicobar Islands, the waves were less than 75 cm high. On the east coast of India, the tsunami first arrived at Nagapatinam at around 10:15 am local time (LT) with a 1.2m high waves. Tidal gauges at other locations recorded minor variations from normal tidal changes. The tsunami then struck the rest of the Tamil Nadu coast, first hitting Chennai and then progressing north toward Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh at 10:43 LT. Waves arrived at False Point on the Mahanadi delta in Orissa at 11:15 LT and at Pamban in the Gulf of Mannar at 11:32 LT. Waves less than 0.3 metres high were recorded later in the day in West Bengal by tidal gauges at Dublat at the mouth of the Hoogly river at 13:00 LT and then in Diamond Harbour at 15:10 LT (Ortiz and Bilham, 2003). Waves attributed to this tsunami were also observed at Batticaloa and Trincomalee on the east coast of Sri Lanka (Berninghausen, 1966). No tsunami was reported from tidal gauges in Myanmar (Ortiz and Bilham, 2003). A tsunami was noticed at Dublet (mouth of Hoogly River) near Kolkata due to earthquake in the western part of the Bay of Bengal in 1884 (Murty et al. 1999) that reached up to Port Blair. June 26, 1941 Andaman earthquake had a moment magnitude Mw 7.7 and was located at 12.1 N and 92.5 E (Bilham et al., 2005). A tsunami was triggered by this earthquake in the Bay of Bengal. Height of the tsunami was reported to be of the order of 0.75 to 1.25 meters. At the time no tidal gauge was in operation. Mathematical calculations suggest that the height could be of the order of 1m. This tsunami was witnessed along the eastern coast of India. It is believed that nearly 5,000 people were killed by the tsunami on the east coast of India. Local newspapers are believed to have mistaken the deaths and damage to a storm surge, however, a search of meteorological records does not show any storm surge on that day on the Coromandel Coast (Murty, 1984). National dailies like the Times of India, which reported the quake's shaking effects, did not mention any deaths, either as a result of a storm surge or a tsunami. The deadliest tsunami prior to 2004 in South Asia was in November 1945, which originated off the Makran coast of Pakistan in the Arabian Sea and caused deaths as far as Mumbai. More than 4000 people were killed on the Makran Coast by both the earthquake and the tsunami. The earthquake was also characterized by the eruption of a mud volcano, a few kilometers off the Makran Coast, which are common features in Western Pakistan and Myanmar. It led to the formation of a four small islands. A large volume of gas that erupted from one of the islands, sent flames leaping "hundreds of meters" into the sky (Mathur, 1988). The most significant aspect of this earthquake was the tsunamis that it triggered. The tsunami reached a o o 116
Slide 117: height of 17m in some Makran ports and caused great damage to the entire coastal region. A good number of people were washed away. The tsunami was also recorded at Muscat and Gwadar. The tsunami had a height of 11.0 - 11.5 m in Kutch, Gujarat (Pendse, 1945). At 8:15am, it was observed on Salsette Island i.e Mumbai (Newspaper archives, Mumbai). It was recorded in Bombay Harbour, Versova (Andheri), Haji Ali (Mahalaxmi), Juhu (Ville Parle) and Danda (Khar). At Versova (Andheri, Mumbai), 5 persons who were fishing were washed away. At Haji Ali (Mahalaxmi, Mumbai), 6 persons were swept into the sea. At Danda and Juhu, several fishing boats were torn off their moorings. The tsunami did not do any damage to Bombay Harbour. Most persons who witnessed the tsunami said that it rose like the tide coming in, but much more rapidly. The height of the tsunami in Mumbai was 2m. A total of 15 persons were washed away in Mumbai. Mw 7.7, 1983 earthquake in Chagos Archipelago, was one of the strongest earthquakes ever recorded in the Indian Ocean. It occurred at 17:46pm UTC. The earthquake caused some damage (NEIC) to buildings and piers on Diego Garcia. Diego Garcia is part of the Chagos Archipelago. The 1983 earthquake spawned a tsunami in the region. In the lagoon, on Diego Garcia, there was a 1.5-meter rise in wave height and there was some significant wave damage near the southeastern tip of the island. A 40 cm wave was also recorded at Victoria, Seychelles. There was a large zone of discolored seawater observed 60 - 70 km NNW of Diego Garcia. Moment-tensor solution indicated normal faulting along an E-W plane at a depth of 10km with source duration of 34 sec. CONCLUSIONS The catalog prepared for tsunamis in the Indian Ocean includes about ninety tsunamis. Eighty percent of the tsunamis in the Indian Ocean are from Sunda arc region where on an average tsunamis are generated once in three years. In rest of the Indian Ocean tsunamis can be generated once in ten years or so. The Makran accretion zone of southern Pakistan has produced some tsunamis. The 28 Nov. 1945 (Mw 8.0) earthquake generated the last major tsunami in the Arabian Sea. Indus Delta and may be the Coasts of Kutch and Saurashtra are also potential zones for great earthquakes and tsunami. Tsunami was generated by an earthquake in 1762 in Myanmar and in 1874 by an earthquake near Bangladesh. The Chagos ridge has given rise to a local tsunami due to a normal earthquake of Mw 7.7 on 30 Nov. 1983 near Diego Garcia. This work was carried out under CSIR Emeritus Scientist Scheme. REFERENCES Bendick, R, and R. Bilham, (1999). A Search for Buckling of the SW Indian Coast related to Himalayan Collision, in Macfarlane, A., Sorkhabi, R. B., and Quade, J., eds., Himalaya and Tibet: Mountain Roots to Mountain Tops: Geol Soc Amer. Special paper 328. 313-322. Berninghausen, W. H., (1966). Tsunamis and Seismic Seiches reported from regions adjacent to the Indian Ocean, Bull. Seism. Soc. Am., 56 (1), 69-74. Bilham, R, R. Engdahl, N.Feld, and S.P. Sayabala (2005). Partial and complete rupture of the Indo-Andaman plate boundary 1847-2004, Seism. Res. Lett., 76 (3), 299-311. George Pararas-Carayannis (2003). Near and Far-Field Effects of Tsunamis Generated By the Paroxysmal Eruptions, Explosions, Caldera Collapses and Massive Slope Failures of The Krakatau Volcano in Indonesia on August 26-27, 1883, Science of Tsunami Hazards, 21 (4), 191-222. 117
Slide 118: Heck, N.H. (1947). List of seismic sea waves, Bull.Seism. Soc. Am., 37, 269-286. Lisitzin, E. (1974). Sea Level Changes, Elsevier Oceanographic Series, No.8, New York, 273pp. Macmurdo, Captain (1821). Account of the earthquake which occurred in India in June 1819, Edinburgh Phil.J. 4, 106-109. Mathur, S.M., (1998). "Physical Geology of India", National Book Trust of India, New Delhi. Murty, T. S., A. Bapat & Vinayak Prasad (1999). Tsunamis on the coastlines of India, Science of Tsunami Hazards, 17 (3), 167-172. Murty, T.S. (1984). Storm surges- meteorological ocean tides, Bull. Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Ottawa. Nelson, Captain (1846). Notice of an earthquake and a probable subsidence of the land in the district of Cutch, near the mouth of Koree, or the eastern branch of the Indus in June 1845, Geol.Soc. London, Quart. J.,2, 103. Newcomb, K.R. and McCann, W.R. (1987). Seismic history and tectonics of the Sunda Arc, JGR, 92 (B1), 421-439. Ortiz, M., and Bilham, R. (2003). Source Area and Rupture Parametres of the 31 December 1881 Mw=7.9 Car Nicobar Earthquake estimated from tsunamis recorded in the Bay of Bengal, J. Geophys. Res- Solid Earth, 108(4), ESE 11, 1-16. Pendse, C. G. (1945). The Mekran earthquake of the 28 November 1945, India Met. Deptt. Scientific Notes, 10, 141-145. th 118
Slide 119: Tsunamis on the coast lines of India by T. S. Murty,Baird and Associates Coastal Engineers Ottawa, Canada, A. Bapat, Sadashiv Peth, Puna, India Although the majority of the reported tsunamis are from littoral countries of the Pacific Ocean, there are a few cases of tsunamis in the Indian Ocean. The approximate length of the Indian coast is about 6000 kilometers. The coasts run from north to south and have two arms in the east and west with a tapering end at Kanyakumari. The tsunamigenic earthquakes occur mostly at the following three locations; (1) The Andaman sea, (2) Area about 400-500 kilometers SSW of Sri Lanka (Ceylon), (3) The Arabian Sea about 70-100 kilometers south of Pakistan Coast -- off Karachi and Baaluchistan. The oldest record of tsunami is available from November 326 BCE earthquake near the Indus delta/Kutch region. Alexander the Great was returning to Greece after his conquest and wanted to go back by a sea route. But an earthquake of large magnitude destroyed the mighty Macedonian fleet as reported by Lietzin (1974). The earliest record of tsunami is reported to be about 1.5 meters at Chennai (formerly Madras) which was created due to the August 8, 1883 Krakatoa volcanic explosion in Indonesia. An earthquake of magnitude 8.25 occurred about 70 kilometers south of Karachi (Pakistan) at 24.5 N and 63.0 E on November 27, 1945. This created a large tsunami of about 11.0 to 11.5 meters high on the coasts of India in the Kutchch region, as reported by Pendse (1945). An earthquake of magnitude 8.1 occurred in the Andaman Sea at 12.9 N and 92.5 E on June 26, 1941 and a tsunami hit the east coast of India. As per non-scientific/journalistic sources, the height of the tsunami was of the order of 0.75 to 1.25 meters. At the time no tide gauge was in operation. Mathematical calculations suggest that the height could be of the order of 1.0 meter. There are a few more cases of earthquakes of magnitude less than 8.0 which have given rise to some smaller tsunamis. Bapat, et al (1983) have reported a few more earthquakes on the coast of Myanmar (formerly Burma). http://iri.columbia.edu/~lareef/tsunami/ Summary account on historical background on Indian Ocean tsunamis Information relating to the submarine earthquake in between Aceh, Indonesia and Sri Lanka of the 26th of December, 2004 has been compiled here. This compilation archives much of the readily available scientific information. Aspects that were not immediately brought out by news reports were: • • The 9.0 Earthquake at 6.58 hours at the epicenter (and in Sri Lanka) led to a sequence of 15 other quakes across the Andaman region. While earthquakes could not be predicted in advance, once the earthquake was detected it would have been possible to give about 3 hours of notice of a potential Tsunami. Such a system of warnings is in place across the Pacific Ocean. However, there was no warning system in the Indian Ocean. In addition, coastal dwellers are educated in the Pacific littoral to get to high ground quickly following waves. However, those in the Indian Ocean were quite unaware. 119
Slide 120: • • • • Tsunamis are rarer in the Indian Ocean as the seismic activity is much less than in the Pacific. However, there have been 7 records of Tsunamis set off by Earthquakes near Indonesia, Pakistan and one at Bay of Bengal. Earthquakes occur when any of the 12 or 13 plate collide at their boundaries. The present collision is due to compression between the Indian and Burmese plates. Scientists now believe that one plate that comprised the landmass from India to Australia has broken up into two. The initial 8.9 eruption happened near the location of the meeting point of the Australian, Indian and Burmese plates. Scientists have shown that this is a region of compression as the Australian plate is rotating counterclockwise into the Indian plate. This also means that a region of seismic activity has become active in the South Eastern Indian Ocean. Tsunamis are not entirely unknown in Sri Lanka. For example, the Tsunami in 1883 generated by the Volcanoes at Krakatoa led to a surge of at least 1 m in Sri Lanka. The damage was much less then. However, one difference was that this particular episode happened in the month of August. In the month of December, under the North-East monsoon, the Equatorial Indian Ocean jet propagates along the equator from Sumatra (near the epicenter of the quake) slightly to the South of Sri Lanka and to Somalia. This may be why the impact of the quake led to severe impacts in Sri Lanka. Once the large amount of pent-up energy in the compression zones of the plate boundaries have been released, it takes another buildup of energy for another event of similar magnitude. This is unlikely in the short-term. However, in the future, Indian Ocean littoral regions should generate and pay attention to earthquake and tsunami warnings and be aware of the interplay of the seasonal oceanographic currents Details at: http://iri.columbia.edu/~mahaweli/climate.lk_mirror/tsunami/ 120
Slide 121: Tsunamis return after 60 years By N. Gopal Raj It is pell-mell near the Vivekananda Rock Memorial, Kanyakumari, where three passenger boats were washed ashore. - Photo: A. Shaikmohideen THIRUVANANTHAPURAM, DEC. 26. Tsunamis returned to devastate India after an interval of more than 60 years. The tsunamis of 1941 and, before that, of 1881 were set off by earthquakes in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Where the sea and the road merged. A scene on the Marina beach in Chennai. - AP The islands are earthquakeprone as they are close to the zone where the section of the earth's crust carrying India and Australia is sliding below the section that holds Asia. The two sections are converging at an estimated rate of 5.4 cm a year, according to a paper in the scientific journal, Current Science, last year. As the sections slowly slip past one another, strains develop at various points and they are released in the form of earthquakes. Today's undersea earthquake off Sumatra appears to have set off smaller quakes in the vicinity of the Andaman and Nicobar islands. At least one of them had a magnitude of over 7, according to data on the United States Geological Survey (USGS) website. Trigger earthquakes? The USGS data also showed that earthquakes in the Andaman and Nicobar islands had occurred up to 9 degrees northwards and 2 degrees westwards of the one in Sumatra. Tremors from the Sumatran earthquake might have caused "trigger earthquakes" at faults in and around the Andaman and Nicobar islands where strain had been building up, said C.P. Rajendran of the Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS) here. Dr. Rajendran was the lead author of the Current Science paper. 121
Slide 122: The earthquake that occurred on June 26, 1941 is thought to have exceeded a magnitude of 8.5. "It is quite likely that the magnitude of this earthquake has been underestimated," the authors said in their Current Science paper. The quake caused extensive damage in the Andamans, including bringing down the central tower of the infamous Cellular Jail where many freedom fighters were imprisoned. The earthquake set off a tsunami that inundated the western coast of the Andaman Island and then hit the Indian east coast, destroying property and killing people. The magnitude 7.5 earthquake of December 31, 1881 is thought to have occurred under the sea off the Car Nicobar Island. It too generated a tsunami. Nearly a dozen earthquakes bigger than magnitude 5 have occurred in the region since 1973, with the one over magnitude 6 occurring in January 1983, according to the Current Science paper. But data from the country's tide gauges, available from the mid-1970s, do not indicate that any tsunamis had occurred, said Satish Shetye, Director of the National Institute of Oceanography at Dona Paula in Goa. Although undersea earthquakes are the most common cause of tsunamis, submarine landslides, underwater volcanic eruptions and the large meteorities plunging into the sea can also set off these killer waves. A tsunami can race across the water at speeds of 500 to 1,000 km per hour. In the open ocean, however, the waves of a tsunami may be only 30 cm to 60 cm in height and can pass unnoticed. But as the tsunami nears a coastline and the water depth falls sharply, the waves slow down but gain in height. Series of waves A tsunami can be 10 to 20 m high when it hits the shore. One with waves almost half a kilometre high slammed into Alaska in 1958. Moreover, a tsunami is not one giant wave, but a series of waves that come ashore at intervals of 10 to 45 minutes. With nearly 800 of them recorded between 1900 and 2001, the Pacific Ocean is where the most tsunamis occur, and 17 per cent of them are generated in or near Japan. As a result, countries in and around the Pacific established a Tsunami Warning System. Seismic stations pinpoint the earthquakes while seafloor pressure recorders detect tsunamis even one centimetre high and promptly pass this data over satellite. All this information is combined with extensive computer modelling to find out which places could be at risk. Open sea tidal gauges would help in detecting if a tsunami had been generated, Dr. Shetye observed. Such gauges would be expensive and not easy to set up. http://www.hindu.com/2004/12/27/stories/2004122702951800.htm 122
Slide 123: Annex 10 Implications of damaging Rama Setu under international Law of the Sea The arbitrary choice of the medial line as the passage channel opens up serious concerns for national sovereignty and security and the arbitrary creation of an international boundary in what have always been considered to be Historic (Internal) Waters. The medial line was only an administrative boundary to delimit ownership of chank and pearl fishery areas between Bharatam and Srilanka and SHOULD NOT be converted into a de facto international waters boundary. “With a canal, the Navy’s proposed Rameshwaram base would be risked. Its training command at Kochi would be certainly compromised in a tsunami. India cannot have a repeat of its assets in the Andamans being gravely affected by the tsunami. As a rising power and with growing ambitions in the Indian Ocean, India has to safeguard its interests. ” (Annex 15 Project Disaster is a comprehensive critique of the project which exposes the entire coastline to risk and creates a navigational hazard.) The new channel alignment now being implemented was never considered by any of the previous committees since 1860 when Commander Taylor proposed a canal. The channel alignment will only satisfy the US interests as seen from the US Navy Operational Directive of 23 June 2005 which refuses to recognize India’s claim and Srilanka’s claim of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Straits and Palk bay as Historic (Internal) Waters and sought to impose its military (naval) might by sending operational ships during 1993, 1994 and 1999. The US Directive says: “This claim(of historic waters) is not recognized by the United States. U.S. conducted operational assertions in 1993 and 1994, to Gulf of Mannar claim in 1999.” • This stance of USA is in direct contravention of United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (1958), Convnention of the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone recognizes HISTORIC Waters Agreement between Sri Lanka and India on the Maritime Boundary between the two Countries in the Gulf of Mannar and the Bay of Bengal and Related Matters 23 March 1976 on Historic waters. • It is a matter of serious concern related to National Sovereignty and Integrity, apart from security of the coastline which will be adversely impacted if the mid-sea passage opens up a funnel to absorb the energy of a next tsunami with incalculable devastation and destruction of Kerala and Tamilnadu coastline apart from the desiccation of the nation’s Thorium reserves (as placer deposits on the beach sands) crucial for the nation’s nuclear programme. (See appended article on how placer deposits are accumulated due to ocean currents on the west of the Rama Setu which divides the two oceans). India and Sri Lanka have consistently treated Palk Bay, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Straits as 'historic' and 'internal'. b) USA does not recognize this claim, has always protested against these, and considers the waters as 'international' and rejects the 'historic' claim too. c) India , by choosing a Setu Samudram Channel alignment running VERY close to international waters, involving damage the Ramar bridge (called a) 123
Slide 124: Adam's Bridge) is going back on its earlier claims of waters being historic waters. d) This view of historic waters also means Sri Lanka is free to do what it likes on its side of the waters. e) A more serious situation arises by keeping the alignment close to the 'international' waters. Coast guard will be handicapped in protecting the channel from the Srilanka side since coast guard vessels will have to constantly get into international waters. f) It will make eminent sense in terms of the juridical regime of historic and internal waters to choose an alignment close to Pamban island WITHOUT damaging the Ramar Bridge (Adam's Bridge). The relevant extracts from UN documents are given below. Juridical Regime of Historic Waters, including Historic Bays Bottom of Form last update: 30 June 2005 The first United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (1958) adopted, in paragraph 6 of article 7 of the Convention of the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone, a provision to the effect that its rules on bays "shall not apply to so-called 'historic' bays". [1] The Conference also adopted on 27 April 1958 a resolution requesting the General Assembly to arrange for the study of the juridical regime of historic waters, including historic bays. [2] The General Assembly thereafter adopted resolution 1453 (XIV) of 7 December 1959 ( E, F, S, R , C , A), which requested the International Law Commission, as soon as it considers it advisable, to undertake the study of the question of the juridical regime of historic waters, including historic bays, and to make such recommendations regarding the matter as the Commission deems appropriate. The Commission, at its twelfth session (1960) requested the Secretariat to undertake a study of the topic, and deferred further consideration to a future session. [3] A study prepared by the Secretariat was published in 1962. [4] Also in 1962, the Commission, at its fourteenth session, decided to include the topic in its programme, but without setting any date for the start of its consideration. [5] At its nineteenth session (1967), the Commission examined the advisability of proceeding actively with the study of this topic. The Commission's report (which also dealt with the topic "Right of asylum") summarized the views expressed as follows: "Most members doubted whether the time had yet come to proceed actively with either of these topics. Both were of considerable scope and raised some political problems, and to undertake either of them at the present time might seriously delay the completion of work on the important topics already under study [...]"[6] [1] United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 516, p. 210. [2] Official Records of the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, vol. II, Plenary Meetings , (United Nations publication, Sales No.: 58.V.4, vol. II), p. 145. [3] See Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1960, vol. II, , p. 180, document A/4425, para. 40. (see Analytical Guide ) [4] Ibid., 1962, vol. II, p. 1, document A/CN.4/143. (see Analytical Guide) [5] Ibid., p. 190, document A/5209, para. 60. (see Analytical Guide) [6] Ibid., 1967, vol. II, document A/6709/Rev.1, para. 45. (see Analytical Guide) http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/summaries/8_4.htm#_ftnref2 124
Slide 125: Paragraphs 4 to 6 of Article 7 of the Convention of the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone read as follows: 4. If the distance between the low-water marks of the natural entrance points of a bay does not exceed twenty-four miles, a closing line may be drawn between these two low-water marks, and the waters enclosed thereby shall be considered as internal waters. 5.Where the distance between the low-water marks of the natural entrance points of a bay exceed twenty-four miles, a straight baseline of twenty-four miles shall be drawn within the bay in such a manner as to enclose the maximum area of water that is possible with a line of that length. 6.The foregoing provisions shall not apply to so-called "historic" bays, or in any case where the straight baseline system provided for in article 4 is applied. Section 7 of President of the Republic of Srilanka in Presidential Proclamation of 15 January 1977 in pursuance of Maritime Zones Law No. 22 of 1 September 1976 reads as follows: (7) (i) that the historic waters of Sri Lanka shall comprise the areas of sea in the Palk Strait, Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar bounded by: (a) the coast of the mainland of Sri Lanka; (b) the maritime boundary between Sri Lanka and India as defined in Section 8 of the Maritime Zones Law, No. 22 of 1976; (c) the arc of Great Circle between the following positions defined by latitude and longitude in the Gulf of Mannar: (i) 08° 15' 0" North, 79° 44' 0" East, (ii) 08° 22' 2" North, 78° 55' 4" East; and (d) the arc of Great Circle between the following positions defined by latitude and longitude in the Palk Strait: (i) 09° 49' 8" North, 80° 15' 2" East, (ii) 10° 05' 0" North, 80° 03' 0" East; (ii) the historic waters in the Palk Bay and Palk Strait shall form part of the internal waters of Sri Lanka; (iii) the historic waters in the Gulf of Mannar shall form part of the territorial sea of Sri Lanka. http://www.un.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/LKA_1977_Procl amation.pdf Agreement between Sri Lanka and India on the Maritime Boundary between the two Countries in the Gulf of Mannar and the Bay of Bengal and Related Matters 23 March 1976 The Government of the Republic of Sri Lanka and the Government of the Republic of India, Recalling that the boundary in the Palk Strait has been settled by the Agreement between the Republic of Sri Lanka and the Republic of India on the Boundary in Historic Waters between the Two Countries and Related Matters, signed on 26/28 June, 1974, And desiring to extend that boundary by determining the maritime boundary between the two countries in the Gulf of Mannar and the Bay of Bengal, Have agreed as follows: …Article 5 (1) Each Party shall have sovereignty over the historic waters and territorial sea, as well as over the islands, falling on its side of the aforesaid boundary. 125
Slide 126: (2) Each Party shall have sovereign rights and exclusive jurisdiction over the continental shelf and the exclusive economic zone as well as over their resources, whether living or non-living, falling on its side of the aforesaid boundary. (3) Each Party shall respect rights of navigation through its territorial sea and exclusive economic zone in accordance with its laws and regulations and the rules of international law. http://www.un.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/TREATIES/LKAIND1976MB.PDF Document:- A/CN.4/143 Juridical Regime of Historic waters including historic bays Study prepared by the Secretariat Topic:Juridical régime of historic waters, including historic bays Extract from the Yearbook of the International Law Commission:- 1962 , vol. II 38. In summary, the concept of "historic waters" has its root in the historic fact that States through the ages claimed and maintained sovereignty over maritime areas which they considered vital to them without paying much attention to divergent and changing opinions about what general international law might prescribe with respect to the delimitation of the territorial sea. This fact had to be taken into consideration when attempts were made to codify the rules of international law in this field, i.e., to reduce the sometimes obscure and contested rules of customary law to clear and generally acceptable written rules. It was felt that States could not be expected to accept rules which would deprive them of considerable maritime areas over which they had hitherto had sovereignty. http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/documentation/english/a_cn4_143.pdf 126
Slide 127: Justice Krishna Iyer’s letter to Prime Minister 127
Slide 128: Attachment to Justice VR Krishna Iyer’s letter addressed to the Prime Minister New Delhi, 29 March 2007 S. Kalyanaraman, Ph.D., Director, Sarasvati Research Centre, Former Sr. Exec., Asian Development Bank, 3 Temple Avenue, Chennai 600015 Tel. 044 22350557 To Hon’ble Chief Justice of Supreme Court of India, Respected Balakrishnan ji, Supreme Court of India, New Delhi Sub: Public Interest Litigation requesting suspension of work on Sethusamudram Channel Project (SSCP); request that this letter and attachments be treated as PIL petition Attached note details the serious situation created by the choice of a channel alignment for SSCP without taking into account the impact of tsunami of the type which struck the coastline of Bharatam on Dec. 26, 2004. Ramsethu in fact saved the coastline of Bharatam reducing the impact of the last tsunami. If the present alignment is continued, an enormous energy of the next tsunami will be absorbed through this channel and result in the destruction of Kerala. Further, the creation of an artificial boundary between Srilanka and India in the Indian Ocean will adversely impact the livelihood of coastal people who will be prevented from crossing the channel boundary. On 8 March 2005, Prime Minister’s Office raised 16 objections including the observations of the world-renowned tsunami expert, Prof. Tad S. Murthy of Canada who has been enaged as an expert by the Govt. of Inda to set up a tsunami-warning system in the country. Prof. Murthy is firmly of the opinion that this present alignment will destroy Kerala and most of the coastline of southern Bharatam. These concerns and the impact of a tsunami should be subjected to detailed, multidisciplinary evaluation before work on a channel is resumed using any one of the other five alternative channels available (including the one recommended by GOI steering committee 1996) which will NOT involve destruction of Ramasethu. There is also the issue of thorium and other rich mineral deposits close to the Ramsethu in Kerala thorium sands. The entire region should be subjected to geological exploration to utilize these mineral resources which will have a profound impact on the country’s nuclear program according to the website of Bhabha Atomic Research Centre. Thanking you for your consideration and with the highest respect to your Lordship, Yours sincerely, S. Kalyanaraman kalyan97@gmail.com 128
Slide 129: Realignment of Sethusamudram Channel Project for national security On 8 March 2005, Prime Minister’s Office raises 16 objections to the channel project (including the views of Prof. Tad S Murthy and the imperative of evaluating impact of tsunami). On 23 June 2005, US Navy issues an operational directive, refusing to recognize Bharatam’s and Srilanka’s claims of historic waters. On 30 June 2005, Chairman of the Project provides a back-of-the-envelope, cavalier response to PMO On 2 July 2005, PM and UPA Chairperson inaugurate the project. There is something fishy in the state, apparently acting under US pressure (apart from some US intelligence operatives meddling in the issue – pursing US interests in the indo-us nuke deal). There has been a criminal neglect in hasty decision-making with little concern for security and safety of the coastline of Bharatam and the livelihood of Coastal people and utter disdain for the heritage of Sethu mandiram in Hindu civilizational ethos. Introduction As of 19 March 2007, as claimed in the government website, 81.84% dredging work has been completed on Palk Bay I portion (13.57 kms.); and 1.42% on Adam’s bridge (the name was given by James Rennell, the first Surveyor General of British India, but traditionally called Ram Sethu,)(35.05 kms.); while work is yet to commence on Palk Bay II segment (40.68 kms.). That the Sethu meant a bridge of 48 km. shoals is well-known. It has also been attested in 1747, 1788 and 1804 maps, apart from NASA and Indian Remote Sensing satellite images. The map of 1788 prepared by an Australian botanical explorer, available in Sarasvati Mahal Library, Thanjavur, refers to it as Ramar Bridge. The 1747 map shows Ramancoil I (meaning: Rama Mandir in Rames’waram). Request for suspension of project work on Adam’s bridge, pending scientific/strategic impact analyses Further work on Adam’s bridge should be stopped, project work should be suspended for the following reasons to facilitate a detailed scientific, technical, strategic review and request that a multi-disciplinary expert team be constituted as recommended by the Judge of Ramanathapuram Court (including marine archaeologists, experts from Ministry of Science and Technology and Indian Navy) to realign the channel based on oceanographic studies and taking into account, geostrategic implications: • the project should have been designed to incorporate tsunami protection structures along India’s coastline which was impacted by the devastating tsunami of Dec. 26, 2004 which killed over 200,000 people in the region between Straits of Malacca and Park Straits and Gulf of Mannar; the alignment has been arbitrarily determined without any consultations with experts and evaluation of serious environmental and security impacts, without a detailed scientific evaluation of the impact of tsunami which struck on December 26, 2004; serious dereliction of responsibility by the Chairman, Tuticorin Port Trust (TPT) who gave flippant, telegraphic answers to the queries raised on 8 March 2005, by Prime Minister’s Office. • • 129
Slide 130: Words of the great American Judge Justice Cardozo are very relevant in this context of utter disregard for ‘due process’ in designing and executing a project of this importance: 'Means unlawful in their inception do not become lawful by relation when suspicion ripens into discovery'. Order re-evaluation of alternative alignments with reference to tsunami impacts It may be seen from the map (Fig.1), that there are five other alternative alignments which had been considered since 1961 and which do NOT involve the destruction of the Ram Sethu. In fact, the alignment suggested by a Steering Committee and slightly modified by NEERI in 1998 should have been the basis for the SSCP. There is no explanation as to why this alignment was given up and an arbitrary line was drawn on the map close to the international water boundaries (See Fig. 2 showing the channel alignment in relation to International Waters boundary). Serious concerns raised by Prof. Tad S Murthy and other scientific issues One of the queries raised by PMO related to the views of Prof. Tad S. Murthy and the failure to evaluate the impact of a tsunami on the chosen alignment. Prof. Murthy is a world-renowned expert on tsunamis and had been engaged by Govt. of India (Min. of Science and Technology) to set up a tsunami warning system. It is disturbing that his views have been ignored as may be seen from the comments made by him in an email communication on Feb. 21, 2007 which casts serious aspersions on the conduct of Chairman, TPT. (See Annex 1) Enquiry demanded against Chairman, Tuticorin Port Trust The serious queries raised by Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) on 8 March 2005 were responded to by Chairman, TPT on 30 June 2005 (as seen from the government website), without any consultations with NEERI of Nagpur and NIOT of Chennai (who were responsible for environmental impact and bathymetry analyses and evaluations). And within two days, thereafter, without any detailed review, the project has been inaugurated. This raises concerns of the absence of due diligence in preparing a project of such national and international significance and utter disregard for the concerns expressed about the destruction of Kerala if work continues on the present alignment of the channel. In my view, an investigation should be ordered on the Chairman, CPT who has acted in a manner unbecoming of the office he holds, with a blatant dereliction of responsibility in a public office. I am also deeply concerned that Prime Minister’s Office did NOT apply their mind in reevaluating the project and failed to obtain expert evaluation on the off-the-cuff, cavalier answers provided by Chairman, TPT. In one answer, Chairman, TPT says: “The present alignment is considered based on the bathymetry to reduce the dredging distance of the canal and the dredge material. The alignment suggested by Steering Committee is passing near the Shingle island which is only 12Km. from the alignment…” This is a mis-representation hiding the fact that the alternative alignments in fact provide for a shorter distance for maritime traffic. It should also be noted that the samples taken by NIOT during bathymetry studies should have been subjected to detailed geological investigations with particular reference to nuclear mineral contents. That the Chairman TPT did not get such investigations done is a dereliction of duty. SSCP is unlike Panama or Suez Canals; it is a channel under the ocean 130
Slide 131: Extreme caution is warranted because SSCP is unlike the Panama or Suez Canals which are land-based canals while the present channel alignment is mostly under the ocean subjected to extreme currents, periodic cyclones and now, tsunami. This repeated assertion by a scientist apprehending destruction of Kerala if the present alignment (Fig. 3 Chosen alignment in relation to path of tsunami) is not altered should have been subjected to a careful multi-disciplinary review. I am sorry to bring to your notice that such a review has not been done, thus, seriously impairing national security. Imperative of realignment of channel to avoid destruction of Kerala coast Aligning it northwestwards will certainly mitigate the impact of the next tsunami. Avoiding the alignment which cuts through the Adam’s bridge will ensure that the bridge continues to act as a barrier against the next tsunami (which will flow from east and west, get deflected by the bridge; which will flow from west to east after circumnavigating Srilanka, will again get deflected by the bridge). This is how the impact on the west coat in southern Kerala will get minimized with the continued presence of the Sethu, kept intact without an intruding channel. World Heritage Site and millennia-old sacred monument, Sethu mandir I take strong exception to the Union Minister for Shipping calling those expressing concerns about SSCP as ‘anti-nationals’. The proposed channel alignment involving the destruction of Ram Sethu, hurts the sentiments of millions of people who look upon Ram Sethu as Sethumandir, a pilgrimage site, a sacred monument, a temple. Participating in the destruction of this age-old temple, which should be declared as a World Heritage Site, is a-dharma and an affront to Bharatiya traditions. (See Annex 2 with excerpts from Ramayana and Mahabharata). It is the responsibility of the State to preserve and protect this monument, this civilizational heritage. This is mandated by Art. 51-A of Indian Constitution. Implications for nation’s nuclear programme and under-sea mineral resource mapping In the course of my interactions with scientists, I have learnt that since Ram Sethu is an ancient geological formation with shoals being constantly formed by ocean currents, and being close to the thorium sands of Kerala coastline, the geological significance of the entire region should be studied in detail with particular reference to India’a nuclear programme initiatives. (Annex 3) Strategic and maritime implications When several alternative routes that do not destroy the very ancient monument of Ram Sethu are available, why was an alignment arbitrarily decided upon which cuts across the Ram Sethu, ignoring the views expressed by environmentalists, seismologists, oceanographers and concerns of people living along the coastline? Was the Indian Navy consulted on geostrategic maritime implications (of sea-lanes between Straits of Hormuz – Persian Gulf – and Straits of Malacca – Singapore— close to Diego Garcia and the Trincomalee base with very low-frequency radio waves to monitor submarine movements), before the project was inaugurated? Why destroy a barrier which had, in fact, saved the coastline of Bharat during the last 131
Slide 132: tsunami? Why not use the opportunity to re-assert India’s geo-strategic responsibility in guarding the sealanes? (See Annex 4) It is imperative that the historic waters should continue to be recognized as such despite pressures from the US. See a map showing the present channel alignment and intl. medial line. This alignment should be CHANGED immediately since the choice of the alignment is arbitrary, apparently under US pressure which does NOT recognize historic waters and without evaluating scientifically the impact of a tsunami if this alignment is implemented. "The mood is grim among the fishermen of Rameswaram, Mukundarayapuram, Dhanushkodi, and Pamban in Ramanathapuram district and Thracepuram in Tuticorin district. If a substantial number of them firmly oppose the project today, it is because they fear that once the canal is a reality, it will become an unofficial boundary line on the sea between India and Sri Lanka. The catch is that it is in the Sri Lankan waters that fish thrive. The canal would seal their entry into those waters for fishing, they fear. " http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2201/stories/20050114005902400.htm Arulanandan is right. [quote] 132
Slide 133: In Rameswaram, fishermen belonging to various associations who had gathered inside a hut near the fishing jetty, make clear their opposition to the Sethusamudram project. R. Suresh, 38, president of the Minority Communities Fishermen's Association, says, "We looked upon the canal as a dream project. But now we know the details and realise that it will ruin our livelihood." At Pamban, some distance away, U. Arulanandam, president, Singaravelar Fishermen's Forum, calls it "an anti-fishermen project" that will "destroy a hard-working community". Like other fishermen, he suspects that the project is being implemented to enforce the international boundary line in the waters. "They are executing a scheme at a cost of Rs.2,000 crores to draw a border and tell us that we cannot cross the border to fish. This scheme will destroy the fishing community," he says.[unquote] http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2201/stories/20050114005902400.htm Implications of damaging Rama Sethu under international Law of the Sea a) b) c) India and Sri Lanka have consistently treated Palk Bay, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Straits as 'historic' and 'internal'. USA does not recognize this claim, has always protested against these, and considers the waters as 'international' and rejects the 'historic' claim too. India , by choosing a Sethu Samudram Channel alignment running VERY close to international waters, involving damage the Ramar bridge (called Adam's Bridge) is going back on its earlier claims of waters being historic waters. This view of historic waters also means Sri Lanka is free to do what it likes on its side of the waters. A more serious situation arises by keeping the alignment close to the 'international' waters. Coast guard will be handicapped in protecting the channel from the Srilanka side since coast guard vessels will have to constantly get into international waters. It will make eminent sense in terms of the juridical regime of historic and internal waters to choose an alignment close to Pamban island WITHOUT damaging the Ramar Bridge (Adam's Bridge). The relevant extracts from UN documents are given below. d) e) f) Juridical Regime of Historic Waters, including Historic Bays Bottom of Form last update: 30 June 2005 The first United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (1958) adopted, in paragraph 6 of article 7 of the Convention of the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone, a provision to the effect that its rules on bays "shall not apply to so-called 'historic' bays". [1] The Conference also adopted on 27 April 1958 a resolution requesting the General Assembly to arrange for the study of the juridical regime of historic waters, including historic bays. [2] The General Assembly thereafter adopted resolution 1453 (XIV) of 7 December 1959 ( E, F, S, R , C , A), which requested the International Law Commission, as soon as it considers it advisable, to undertake the study of the question of the juridical regime of historic waters, including historic bays, and to make such recommendations regarding the matter as the Commission deems appropriate. The Commission, at its twelfth session (1960) requested the Secretariat to undertake a study of the topic, and deferred further consideration to a future session. [3] A study prepared by the Secretariat was published in 1962. [4] Also in 1962, the Commission, at its fourteenth session, decided to include the topic in its programme, 133
Slide 134: but without setting any date for the start of its consideration. [5] At its nineteenth session (1967), the Commission examined the advisability of proceeding actively with the study of this topic. The Commission's report (which also dealt with the topic "Right of asylum") summarized the views expressed as follows: "Most members doubted whether the time had yet come to proceed actively with either of these topics. Both were of considerable scope and raised some political problems, and to undertake either of them at the present time might seriously delay the completion of work on the important topics already under study [...]" [6] [1] United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 516, p. 210. [2] Official Records of the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, vol. II, Plenary Meetings , (United Nations publication, Sales No.: 58.V.4, vol. II), p. 145. [3] See Yearbook of the International Law Commission, I960, vol. II, p. 180, document A/4425, para. 40. (see Analytical Guide ) [4] Ibid., 1962, vol. II, p. 1, document A/CN.4/143. (see Analytical Guide) [5] Ibid., p. 190, document A/5209, para. 60. (see Analytical Guide) [6] Ibid., 1967, vol. II, document A/6709/Rev.1, para. 45. (see Analytical Guide) http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/summaries/8_4.htm#_ftnref2 Paragraphs 4 to 6 of Article 7 of the Convention of the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone read as follows: 4. If the distance between the low-water marks of the natural entrance points of a bay does not exceed twenty-four miles, a closing line may be drawn between these two low-water marks, and the waters enclosed thereby shall be considered as internal waters. 5.Where the distance between the low-water marks of the natural entrance points of a bay exceed twenty-four miles, a straight baseline of twenty-four miles shall be drawn within the bay in such a manner as to enclose the maximum area of water that is possible with a line of that length. 6.The foregoing provisions shall not apply to so-called "historic" bays, or in any case where the straight baseline system provided for in article 4 is applied. Section 7 of President of the Republic of Srilanka in Presidential Proclamation of 15 January 1977 in pursuance of Maritime Zones Law No. 22 of 1 September 1976 reads as follows: (7) (i) that the historic waters of Sri Lanka shall comprise the areas of sea in the Palk Strait, Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar bounded by: (a) the coast of the mainland of Sri Lanka; (b) the maritime boundary between Sri Lanka and India as defined in Section 8 of the Maritime Zones Law, No. 22 of 1976; (c) the arc of Great Circle between the following positions defined by latitude and longitude in the Gulf of Mannar: (i) 08° 15' 0" North, 79° 44' 0" East, (ii) 08° 22' 2" North, 78° 55' 4" East; and (d) the arc of Great Circle between the following positions defined by latitude and longitude in the Palk Strait: (i) 09° 49' 8" North, 80° 15' 2" East, (ii) 10° 05' 0" North, 80° 03' 0" East; (ii) the historic waters in the Palk Bay and Palk Strait shall form part of the internal waters of Sri Lanka; 134
Slide 135: (iii) the historic waters in the Gulf of Mannar shall form part of the territorial sea of Sri Lanka. http://www.un.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/LKA_1977_Procl amation.pdf Agreement between Sri Lanka and India on the Maritime Boundary between the two Countries in the Gulf of Mannar and the Bay of Bengal and Related Matters 23 March 1976 The Government of the Republic of Sri Lanka and the Government of the Republic of India, Recalling that the boundary in the Palk Strait has been settled by the Agreement between the Republic of Sri Lanka and the Republic of India on the Boundary in Historic Waters between the Two Countries and Related Matters, signed on 26/28 June, 1974, And desiring to extend that boundary by determining the maritime boundary between the two countries in the Gulf of Mannar and the Bay of Bengal, Have agreed as follows: …Article 5 (1) Each Party shall have sovereignty over the historic waters and territorial sea, as well as over the islands, falling on its side of the aforesaid boundary. (2) Each Party shall have sovereign rights and exclusive jurisdiction over the continental shelf and the exclusive economic zone as well as over their resources, whether living or non-living, falling on its side of the aforesaid boundary. (3) Each Party shall respect rights of navigation through its territorial sea and exclusive economic zone in accordance with its laws and regulations and the rules of international law. http://www.un.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/TREATIES/LKAIND1976MB.PDF Document:A/CN.4/143 Juridical Regime of Historic waters including historic bays - Study prepared by the Secretariat Topic: Juridical régime of historic waters, including historic bays Extract from the Yearbook of the International Law Commission:1962 , vol. II 38. In summary, the concept of "historic waters" has its root in the historic fact that States through the ages claimed and maintained sovereignty over maritime areas which they considered vital to them without paying much attention to divergent and changing opinions about what general international law might prescribe with respect to the delimitation of the territorial sea. This fact had to be taken into consideration when attempts were made to codify the rules of international law in this field, i.e., to reduce the sometimes obscure and contested rules of customary law to clear and generally acceptable written rules. It was felt that States could not be expected to accept rules which would deprive them of considerable maritime areas over which they had hitherto had sovereignty. http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/documentation/english/a_cn4_143.pdf 135
Slide 136: A Parliamentary Enquiry Committee should be constituted to review and re-evaluate the alignments with the assistance of multi-disciplinary expert teams. S. Kalyanaraman, Ph.D. Sarasvati Research Centre, Former Sr. Exec., Asian Development Bank, 26 March 2007 136
Slide 137: Figures and annexes appended to the letter addressed to the Hon’ble Prime Minister Fig. 1 Alternative channel alignments (Coral reef and Algae reef locations) Fig. 2 Chosen alignment of channel close to International Waters boundary Fig. 3 Chosen alignment in relation to path of tsunami (Souce: Computer simulation graphic in 137
Slide 138: http://www.dhisoftware.com/general/News/Tsunami/index_new.html) Annex 1 : Views of Prof. Tad S. Murthy Prof Murthy says: [quote] During the Indian Ocean tsunami of 26th December 2004, the very southern part of Kerala was generally spared from a major tsunami, mainly because the tsunami waves from Sumatra region travelling south of the Sri Lankan Island, partially diffracted northward and affected the central part of the Kerala coast.Since tsunami is a long gravity wave (similar to tides and storm surges) during the diffraction process, the rather wide turn it has to take spared south Kerala coast. On the otherhand, deepening the Sethu Canal might provide a more direct route for the tsunami and this could impact south Kerala.In late 2005 I had a face to face discussion in Chennai during a very cordial meeting with Shri Raghupathy(I do not know his exact title, but he is the head of the project, to the best of my knowledge) during which I raised this point. I requested him to consider slightly reorienting the entrance of the Sethu canal on the Bay of Bengal side, so that in future tsunami events, tsunami energy will not be preferentially funnelled into the Sethu canal. Shri Raghupathy assured me that he will look into this matter. When a senior IAS officer like Shri Raghupathy says something, I beleive him and I have no further concerns on this matter. [unquote] Prof. Murthy had also noted: "(This view of TPT that no re-alignment is necessary) I absolutely disagree with. I have analysed the problem to my complete satisfaction.” He cited the example of the Alberni canal on Vancouver Island in British Columbia."The Sethusamudram canal has many characteristics similar to the Alberni canal, and this is the reason I am concerned. In the March 28, 1964, Alaska earthquake tsunami, outside of Alaska the largest tsunami amplitude was at the head of the Alberni canal well inland and not at the open coast as everyone expected. Later, I explained this was due to (a phenomenon known as) quarter wave resonance amplification" • NEERI (environment) and NIOT (sea-depth or bathymetry) reviews did NOT take into account impact of tsunami (which happened on Dec. 26, 2006, two years after NEERI evaluation). It should be noted that the tsunami has radically altered the bathymetry (sea-depth) of the region. The core samples should be subjected to detailed geological analysis for possible nuclear and other mineral content. Annex 2: Excerpts from Ramayana and Mahabharata on Sethu mandir heritage Valmiki describes in the Great Epic, Ramayana, the construction of Sethu in detail. “He sings with gusto of the noise and confusion of the gigantic project. The Vaanaras (special tribes in the southern regions having features such as prominent and strong jaws) went to the mountains and forests and, plucking rocks and trees, dragged them to the shore. The bigger Vaanaras brought big boulders and threw them into the sea. As they fell down, the water splashed sky-high. Nala -- Vishwakarma’s son and the project leader -- stood and supervised their labours. The leaders in charge of companies kept them active. On the top of the rocks and trees, when the base was firm, a dressing of grass and little pieces of wood was given to produce a level surface. The noise raised by the dam-builders drowned the roar of the ocean. The construction was complete. The new path shone across the sea like the milky way in the sky.” [Ref.: C. Rajagopalachari, Ramayana, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 138
Slide 139: 29th Edition, 1996, p. 274-275). The Sethumandir is a sacred monument because of its association with Shri Rama who said: Mother and Motherland are greater than heaven. (Jananee janmabhoomischa swargaadapi gareeyasi). Ram Sethu is referred to as Nala's Bridge in the Great Epic, Mahabharata. hastimaatraan mahaakaayaaH paaSaaNaamshca mahaabalaaH parvataamshca samutpaaTya yantraiH parivahanti ca Valmiki Ramayana 2-22-58 Vaanara having huge bodies, with mighty strength uprooted elephant-sized rocks and mountains and transported them by mechanical contrivances (yantraih). • Vedavyasa refers to Nalasetu nalasetur iti khyāto yo 'dyāpi prathito bhuvi rāmasyājñāṃ puraskṛtya dhāryate girisaṃnibhaḥ MBh. 3.267.45 .... which even today, popular on earth as Nala's bridge, mountainlike, is sustained out of respect for [Lord] Rama's command. (Nala was son of Vis’wakarma) 1747 map of Netherlands showing Ramancoil I. Annex 3: Implications for nation’s nuclear programme and under-sea mineral resource mapping Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) website notes:”The currently known Indian thorium reserves amount to 358,000 GWe-yr of electrical energy and can easily meet the energy requirements during the next century and beyond.. U-233/Th-232 based breeder reactors are under development and would serve as the mainstay of the final thorium utilization stage of the Indian nuclear programme.” http://www.barc.ernet.in/webpages/about/anu1.htm A team of scientists led by Dr.V.J.Loveson of the Council for Industrial and Scientific Research (CISR) New Delhi, studying placer deposits in the area, note that an estimated 40 million tonnes of Titanium alone has been deposited in the entire stretch of 500 kilometer coastline. Tsunami of Dec. 2004 has changed bathymetry (sea-depth) of the region. Thus, all alignments related to SSCP should be subjected to a fresh re-evaluation with particular reference to the mineral resources which are the mainstay of India’s nuclear programme. Close to Ramsethu, natural radioactivity from the black thorium sands of Kerala (India) is accelerating the DNA mutation rate in the local population. Most of these new mutations have hit the same DNA positions that have mutated naturally in at least the past 60,000 years of human evolution. Forster L, Forster P, Lutz-Bonengel S, Willkomm H, Brinkmann B (2002) Natural radioactivity and human 139
Slide 140: mitochondrial DNA mutations. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:13950-13954 http://www.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk/genetics/images/kerala_lowres.jpg Annex 4: Strategic implications of SSCP The following US Navy operational directive distinguishing international and historic waters may be noted:: Aug 76 Act No. 80 Enables government to declare waters as historic. Jun 79 Law No. 41; Waters of Palk Bay between coast and boundary with Sri Lanka claimed as internal waters; waters of Gulf of Mannar between coast and maritime boundary claimed as historic waters. This claim is not recognized by the United States. U.S. conducted operational assertions in 1993 and 1994, to Gulf of Mannar claim in 1999. It needs to be underscored that India should assert its strategic responsibility in providing security in these historic waters for sea-faring vessels, maritime traders apart from the protection of the the environmental wealth of coral reefs and algae (ayurvedic herbals also contributing to photosynthesis of oxygen cycle) which provide for livelihood of millions of coastal people. The Sethu Samudram Canal Project (SSCP), envisages that ships upto a maximum of 32,000 Dead Weight Tonnes (DWT) only would be able to pass through the canal. However,the bulk of the vessels using the International Shipping routes, East- and West-bound, from South of Sri Lanka, are of higher DWT and will thus not traverse through the SSCP. If that be the case, one wonders at the economic viability of the SSCP in its totality. Is it, therefore, a Project meant only for the coal-carrying vessels from Haldia/Paradip/Vishakapatnam to Tuiticorin or the Feeder Container Vessels that ply between our ports and Colombo? Another aspect that I would like to invite your attention, relates to the construction of the 'dredged canal'. As the sides of the canal cannot be lined or protected by any artificial wall, a strong tidal wave is enough to level the canal. May I query, what then happens to the Rs 2000 crore capital spent on dredging? Further, I am given to understand that it will be almost impossible for the dredgers to operate between the months of October to December because of the cyclonic season, strong winds and tidal waves. It will be more a battle against the forces of Mother Nature in that period rather than maintenance of the canal. 140
Slide 141: Annex 11 IN THE HIGH COURT OF JUDICATURE AT MADRAS DATED: 17.12.2004 CORAM THE HON’BLE MR.MARKANDEY KADJU, CHIEF JUSTICE and THE HON’BLE MR. JUSTICE N.V.BALASUBRAMANIAN W.P.NOS.33528 AND 34436 OF 2004 and W.P.M.P.Nos.40521 and 41570 of 2004 W.P.No.33528 of 2004 O. Fernandes, Co-Convener, Coastal Action Network, No.10, Thomas Nagar, Little Mount, Saidapet, Chennai - 600 015. Vs. 1. Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board, rep. by its Chairman, Anna Salai, Chennai – 32. 2. Union of India, rep. by Ministry of Environment & Forest, through its Secretary, Paravaran Bhavan, CGO Complex, Lodi Road, New Delhi – 110 003. 3. Tuticorin Port Trust, rep. by its Chairman, Tuticorin – 628 004. 4. District Collector, Ramanathapuram District, Ramanathapuram. 5. District Collector, Tuticorin District, Tuticorin. 6. District Collector, Thanjavur District, Thanjavur. …Petitioner. 7. District Collector, Thiruvarkur District, Thiruvarur. 8. District Collector, Pudukottai District, Pudukottai. 141
Slide 142: 9. District Collector, Nagapattinam District, Nagapattinam. 10. Government of Tamil Nadu, rep. by its Secretary, Department of Revenue, Fort St. George, Chennai – 600 009. 11. The Secretary, representing Ministry of Surface & Transports, Transport Bhavan, 1 Sansad Marg, New Delhi – 110 001. 12. Mr. T.R. Balu, Ministry of Surface & Transports, Transport Bhavan, 1 Sansad Marg, New Delhi – 110 001. 13. The Director, National Environment Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nehru Marg, Nagpur – 440 020. ….Respondents. W.P.No.34436 of 2004 Tuticorin Port Trust, Rep. by its Chairman, Tuticorin – 628 004. Vs. 1. Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board, rep. by its Chairman, Anna Salai, Chennai – 32. 2. District Collector, Tuticorin District, Tuticorin. 3. District Collector, Thanjavur District, Thanjavur. 4. District Collector, Thiruvarkur District, Thiruvarur. 5. District Collector, Pudukottai District, Pudukottai. ….Petitioner 142
Slide 143: 6. District Collector, Nagapattinam District, Nagapattinam. ….Respondents. PRAYER: Petition under Article 226 of the Constitution of India for the issuance of writ of mandamus, as stated therein. ---------- Mr. V. Prakash, Senior Counsel For Mr. P. Chandrasekaran. :For Pentioner in W.P.33528/04 Mr. V.T/Gopalan, Addl. Solicitor General :For petitioner in W.P.34436/04 For Mr.P.Wilson, S.C.G.S.C & for respondents 2,11 & 12 in W.P .33528/04 Mr.R.Gandhi, Senior Counsel For Mr. G.Damodharan Mr.N.R.Chandran, Advocate General For Mrs.Rita Chandrasekaran Mr.A.L.Somayaji, Addl.Advocate General For Mr.V.Raghupathy, Government Pleader W.P.34436/04 ---------ORDER THE HON’BLE THE CHIEF JUSTICE Heard learned counsel for the parties. 1. Write Petition No.33528 of 2004 has been filed for a direction to declare the public hearing conducted in connection with the Sethu Samudram Shipping Canal Project (hereinafter referred to as SSSCP) in Tuticorin, Thanjavur, Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam, Pudukkottai and Ramanathapuram districts on several dates to be ineffective and not in compliance with the requirements of law. The petitioner has stated that such public hearing would become meaningful only after a comprehensive Environment Impact Assessment Report on the SSSCP is made ready. The petitioner further prayer for a director against respondents 1 and 2 to constitute panels in accordance with the notification issued by the Central Government on 27.1.1994 as amended on 10.4.1997, and for a further direction to regulate all public hearings to ensure presentation of rational and scientific data. 2. The petitioner claims that he is the co-convener of a group of organizations coming together under the banner of Coastal Action Network. He further claims that the objective of the said network is to ensure protection of environment and bio-diversity in the costal areas. The SSSCP visualizes making a canal for passage :For R3 in W.P.33528/04 :For R1 in both the W.Ps. :For R4 to R10 in W.P.33528/04 & R2 to R6 in 143
Slide 144: of ships through the Palk Strait, and as per the proposal the total length of the canal would be about 260Kms. The Government of India is proposing to dredge a width of 300 Metres through 44 Nautical Miles stretch. It is estimated that 32.5 Million Cubic Metres of sand would be dredged in Adams Bridge and 52 Million Cubic Metres in Palk Strait. The Government’s proposal is aimed at reducing the distance for ships, which now go around Sri Lanka after berthing in Colombo to reach the Bay of Bengal. It is proposed to dredge a shipping canal in the Palk Strait to avoid going around Sri Lanka. 3. The Government of India issued notification on 27.01.1994 under Rule 5(3)(a) of the Environment (Protection) Rules,1986, which was framed under the Environment Protection Act, 1986. By the said notification objections were invited from the public within 60 days from the date of notification. This notification was amended on 10.4.1997, by which, environment clearance by the Central Government was made compulsory. 4. It is stated by the petitioner that the initial Environment Impact Assessment was done by the National Environment Engineering Research Institute (hereinafter referred to as NEERI). It is alleged by the NEERI is not a comprehensive environment impact assessment report, but it is a Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment in May 2004 to the Nodel Agency namely Tuticorin Port Trust. The detailed project report has to be submitted by the Larsen and Turbo of India and Rampaul of Denmark, who are the contractors for the SSSCP. Techno Economic Feasibility Report was expected by July 2004. 5. It is recited in paragraph – 12 of the petitioner’s affidavit that the original public hearing for the SSSCP was held on 08.09.2004 at the respondent District Collectorates. The panel which gave the public hearing in each district on various dates is mentioned in paragraph – 12 of the affidavit. In paragraph – 13 of the affidavit it is alleged that the public hearing held on 14.09.2004 at Tuticorin was unruly and so also the one which was held at Pudukottai. It is alleged that the panel constituted was not in accordance with the notification. Various political parties created pandemonium when views opposed to their professed political interests were being voiced. 6. In paragraph – 14 of his affidavit, the petitioner has given details about the alleged damage to the environment which would be caused by the said project. In paragraph – 16, it is alleged that the present public hearing is not meaningful and does not give effective participation to the citizens and various environment protection groups. The public hearings have become by and large a shouting match of different political groups without systematic presentation of views. In paragraph – 17 it is alleged that the present panelists do not have the necessary qualification or experience. 7. Several counter affidavits have been filed by several respondents in this case, and we have perused the same. The hearings by the Hearing Committees in the six coastal districts of Tamil Nadu are being conducted pursuant to the Environment Impact Assessment Notification dated 27.1.1994 issued by the Central Government in exercise of the powers conferred under Sub-section (1) and Clause (v) of Sub-section (2) of Section 3 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 read with Clause (d) of Sub-rule (3) of Rule 5 of the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986. 144
Slide 145: 8. Section 3(1) and 3(2) (v) of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 runs as follows: “3.Power of Central Government to take measures to protect and improve environment. (1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the Central Government, shall have the power to take all such measures as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing, controlling and abating environment pollution. (2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality to the provisions of sub-section (1), such measures with respect to all or any of the following matters, namely:(i) ----------(ii) ----------(iii) ----------(iv) ----------(v) restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or class of industries, operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall carried out subject to certain safeguards;” 9. Rule 5(3) of the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 states that “(3) (a) Whenever it appears to the Central Government that it is expedient to impose prohibition or restrictions on the location or the carrying on of processes and operation in an areas, it may by notification in the Official Gazette and in such other manner as the Central Government may deem necessary from time to time, give notice of its intention to do so. (b) Every notification under clause (a) shall give a brief description of the area, the industries, operations, processes in that area about which such notification pertains and also specify the reasons for the imposition of prohibition or restrictions on the industries and carrying on of processes or operations in that area. (c) Any person interested in filing an objection against the imposition of prohibited or restrictions on carrying on of processes or operations as notified under clause (a) may do so in writing to the Central Government within sixty days from the date of publication of the notification in the Official Gazette. (d) The Central Government shall within a period of one hundred and twenty days from the date of publication of the notification in the Official Gazette consider all the objections received against such notification and may (three hundred and sixty five days – inserted by G.S.R. 884(E) dt. 20.11.1992) impose prohibition or restrictions on location of such industries and the carrying on of any process or operation in an area. 10. Under the notification dated 27.01.1994 any person who desires to undertake any new project in any part of India or the expansion or modernization of any existing industry or project listed in the Schedule-I shall submit an application to the Secretary, Ministry of Environment and Forest, New Delhi The application shall be made in the proforma specified in Schedule-II of the notification and shall be accompanied by a project report which shall, inter alia, include an Environment Impact Assessment Report, Environment Management plan and details of public hearing as specified in Schedule-IV, prepared in 145
Slide 146: accordance with the guidelines issued by the Central Government in the Ministry of Environment and Forests from time to time. Schedule –IV, prepared in accordance with the guidelines issued by the Central Government in the Ministry of Environment and Forests from time to time. Schedule-IV under the notification gives the procedure for public hearing and Clause (5) of the same states that the public hearing shall be completed within a period of 60 days from the date of receipt of complete documents as required. 11. The reports submitted with the application shall be evaluated and assessed by the Impact Assessment Agency, and if deemed necessary it may consult a Committee of Experts, having a composition as specified in Schedule III of the notification. The Impact Assessment Agency would be the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests. The Committee of Experts mentioned above shall be constituted by the Impact Assessment Agency or such other body under the Central Government authorized by the Impact Assessment Agency in this regard. Then, the Impact Assessment Agency would prepare a set of recommendations based on technical assessment of documents and data, furnished by the project authorities, supplemented by the data collected during visits to sites, if undertaken, and details of the public hearing. The assessment has to be completed within a period of 90 days from the date of receipt of the requisite documents and data from the project authorities and completion of public hearing and decision conveyed within 30 days thereafter. The project authorities have to submit a half yearly report to the Impact Assessment Agency to enable it to monitor effectively the implementation of the recommendations and the conditions imposed for the environment clearance. 12. A reading of the aforesaid notification dated 27.01.1994 including Schedule I and IV of the same, makes it clear that a duty is cast on the person who applies for environment clearance, which in this case happens to be the Tuticorin Port Trust which is appointed as nodal agency for executing the SSSCP, to provide the requisite materials/documents to the 1st respondent viz., Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board. The 1st respondent on being satisfied called for public hearings and conducted the same in the six coastal districts on various dates. The said notices were also published in English and Tamil dailies on 07.08.2004. 13. In our opinion, this writ petition is premature, and is liable to be dismissed on this ground alone. The public hearings were going on when this writ petition was filed, and no adverse orders have yet been passed against anyone. A cause of action arises only when an adverse order has been passed or some action adversely affecting someone’s rights is taken. Since, no adverse orders have been passed not action taken against anyone as yet, we fail to understand how this writ petition can be entertained at this stage. It seems to us that the petitioner has rushed to this Court to block a project which is in the national interest. 14. It is evident that Sethu Samudhram Ship Canal Project would be of great benefit to the country, because at present ships have to go around Sri Lanka to reach the Bay of Bengal. By dredging a Ship Canal in the Palk Strait huge amount of expense and a lot of time would be saved. The distance, time and money on fuel, which will be saved by the shipping industry, can certainly augment business, and traffic in Tuticorin Port and other coastal areas. Hence, it is certainly in the public interest, like the Suez Canal after making which ships coming from Europe did not have to go all around Africa to reach Asian countries, resulting in a huge saving of time and expenditure. 146
Slide 147: 15. In view of the above, Writ Petition No.33528 of 2004 is dismissed as premature. 16. W.P.No.34436 of 2004 has been filed for a writ of mandamus directing the respondent-District Collectors to have the public hearings completed in accordance with the public hearing notice dated 10.10.2004 and to send their reports along with the minutes of the public hearing to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India forthwith. In our option this prayer is an appropriate one, and hence we direct that the public hearings as contemplated by IV schedule to the notification dated 27.01.1994, as amended, be completed expeditiously, if not already completed, and the reports with the minutes be sent to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India forthwith We further direct that the Sethu Samudhram Ship Canal Project be completed as expeditiously as possible. With these directions, W.P.No.34436 of 2004 is disposed off. 17. Before parting with the above cases, we would like to mention that we should not obstruct the scientific and technical progress of the country in the name of environment protection. No doubt, the environment has to be protected, but at the same time. We must never overlook the basis aim of our country which is to make India a powerful and modern industrial state. Today the real would is cruel and harsh. It respects power, not poverty or weakness. The truth is that Indians, despite being intelligent and industrious people, are not respected by Westerners, not because our skin is brown or black in colour, but because our country is poor. Nobody respects the poor. When the Chinese and Japanese were poor people they were derisively called ‘yellow’ races by the Westerners, but today they are industrialized and powerful nations, and now nobody dares to call them that. Similarly, if we wish to get respect in the world community we must make our country highly industrialized and prosperous. Also, industrialization along can generate the wealth we require for taking care of the welfare of our people, as is the mandate of the Directive Principles in our Constitution. 18. Now a days, in seminars, newspaper articles, book etc., the constant refrain is of protecting the environment, and hardly any thought is given about the need for rapid industrialization. Everyone seems to have forgotten the basic goal of our country, that is to make India a modern, powerful, highly industrialized and prosperous country. The implicit message which seems to be conveyed is that the environment must be protected, even if that has to be done by closing down our industries. The impression sought to be created is that there is an imbalance in our country between man and nature because there has been too much industrialization in India, and not too much. Nobody can dispute the need for protecting the environment. After all, people are entitled to pure air and water, forests have to be prepared for ensuring regular rainfall and preventing soil erosion, wildlife has to be protected for maintaining ecological balance, etc. But, what is overlooked is that protection of the environment is incidental to industrialization. In other words, if we industrialize we will by compelled to protect the environment and there is no conflict between industrialization and environment protection. Thus, industrialization itself ensures a good environment. For instance, in Western countries, which are industrialized, the are clean, the air has little pollution, etc., The factories and motor cars in North America and Europe have to be fitted with pollution avoidance devices to meet the high standards of pollution control fixed by the authorities. The forests and wildlife in these countries are carefully preserved by experts scientifically. People in 147
Slide 148: Western countries are fined heavily if they throw litter and garbage on the road or public places, while in our country’s cities one can see garbage and litter lying everywhere. Industrialization not only created the wealth necessary for preserving and protecting the environment, it also creates the modern mind in which protecting the environment is installed since childhood. Parents in Western countries teach their children that they must not throw litter anywhere except in the public bins established for this purpose. When one takes a dog for a walk in any Western city, and the dog excretes on the road or park, the owner must pick up the excreta (with a paper or whatever) and throw it in the bin set up for this purpose, otherwise he is fined. Thus, the very mindset of Westerners is towards protection of the environment, and this is because they are highly industrialized. We are not truing to say that we should not care for the environment. We should certainly not let certain unscrupulous businessmen discharge toxic effluents into our rivers or hazardous fumes into the atmosphere. We should not let greedy forest contractors destroy our forests and ecology. We must certainly place restrictions and regulations for protecting the environment. But, at the same time a balance has to be struck. No doubt Article 48-A of the Constitution states that “the State shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life of the country” and Article 51A(g) makes it a fundamental duty of all citizens to protect forests, lakes, rivers, wildlife, etc. However, these provisions have to be read along with the basic objective of the country, that is to make India a powerful, highly industrialize, and protection of environment must be regarded as only incidental to this main aim, and not itself the main aim. Unless we are industrialized we will never get respect in the comity of nations and will not be able to promote the welfare of our people (because we will not be able to generate the wealth for this purpose) as required by Article 38 of the Constitution. Without industrialization our people shall also not be able to get work, education, unemployment and sickness benefits and other public assistance as required by Article 41 of the Constitution, because all these require huge resources and funds which can only be generated by a high degree of industrialization. The massive unemployment in our country can also be eradicated by rapid industrialization. 19. Consequently, connected miscellaneous petitions are closed. No costs. Index: Yes/No Internet: Yes/No sm 1. Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board, rep. by its Chairman, Anna Salai, Chennai – 32. 2. Union of India, rep. by Ministry of Environment & Forest, through its Secretary, Paravaran Bhavan, CGO Complex, Lodi Road, New Delhi – 110 003. 3. Tuticorin Port Trust, rep. by its Chairman, Tuticorin – 628 004. 148
Slide 149: 4. District Collector, Ramanathapuram District, Ramanathapuram. 5. District Collector, Tuticorin District, Tuticorin. 6. District Collector, Thanjavur District, Thanjavur. 7. District Collector, Thiruvarur District, Thiruvarur. 8. District Collector, Pudukottai District, Pudukottai. 9. District Collector, Nagapattinam District, Nagapattinam. 10. Government of Tamil Nadu, rep. by its Secretary, Department of Revenue, Fort St. George, Chennai – 600 009. 11. The Secretary, representing Ministry of Surface & Transports, Transport Bhavan, 1 Sansad Marg, New Delhi – 110 001. 13. The Director, National Environment Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nehru Marg, Nagpur – 440 020. Annex 12 FLIP SIDE D.N.Seshagiri Retired director, Geological Survey of India, Kottivakkam,Chennai. 149
Slide 150: Letter Published in the Deccan Chronicle(Chennai Edn.) dated 21.06.05 Undoubtedly the Sethusamudram Project will usher in an era of prosperity for the hinterland apart from reducing the travel time between the east and west coast of India by avoiding the circumnavigation of Sri Lanka. While problems like the possible damage to the fragile ecosystem and hardship to the fisherfolk have been addressed, there has been no mention of another potential threat viz. -landslide. One does not know whether this aspect has been studied in detail while according environmental clearance to the project. Our knowledge of control and correction of landslides has been greatly enhanced due to the experience gained in excavating the Panama canal. Among the various geologically critical areas, a few are given as examples of what may hold good for our Sethusamudram project as well. When the Panama canal was first designed, the problems of landslides was ignored. Slides increased the amount of excavation. During the construction of the 12.6 km long Gailord cut at the beginning of the 20th century, landslides caused extremely serious construction problems. Landslide activity resulted in additional excavation that more than doubled the original volume estimates resulting in cost and time over run. The Culebra Cut is another example par excellence to highlight geological problems. The first major slide occurred in 1907. Without warning, approximately 3,82,000 Cu.m of material moved more than 4 meters in 24 hours. This slide caused many people to suggest that the construction of the Panama canal would be impossible. The increase in landslide activity in the Panama canal is still in progress and is expected to continue as the result of the channel deepening programme. The above case histories have been cited not as opposition to the project, but to make sure that the E.I.A. takes all aspects into consideration including possible surges in the channel due to slides below the water line/upheaval in the bed of the channel. http://sethusamudram.in/htmdocs/Articles/Article%203.htm Mail from Dr.D.N.Seshagiri # I would like to know whether NEERI or INDOMER have carried out any geotechnical studies on the stability of the excavated slopes of the dredged channel. These slopes will be under a head of water. What is the angle for the cut slopes provided in the design? How many benches? If so, width of the benches. Has it been checked for its stability? The cut slopes of the Panama Canal (both above water line and below) still pose stability problems. What about possible heaving of the bed of the channel? Should there be a slope failure or heaving of the bed, will they not creat surges (mini tsunami?)Kindly refer to my letter published in Deccan Chronicle (Chennai edition) 150