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Slide 2: International Dictionary of Marketing
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Slide 4: The International Dictionary of Marketing Over 1,000 Professional Terms and Techniques Daniel Yadin
Slide 5: First published in 2002 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licences issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned addresses: Kogan Page Limited 120 Pentonville Road London N1 9JN UK © Daniel Yadin, 2002 The right of Daniel Yadin to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Kogan Page US 22 Broad Street Milford CT 06460 USA British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 0 7494 3532 1 Typeset by JS Typesetting, Wellingborough, Northants Printed and bound in Great Britain by Creative Print and Design (Wales), Ebbw Vale
Slide 6: Contents Introduction: a practical guide for marketers The marketing dictionary Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 US English, Queen’s English Marketing-related business and other terms Marketing-related technology terms Print and production terms – still in use but going out of style 1 5 421 427 433 437 v
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Slide 8: INTRODUCTION Introduction: a practical guide for marketers The only duty a writer has is to defend the language. If language is corrupted, thought is corrupted. W H Auden You will find this Dictionary very practical, with text designed as a guide on a dayto-day level. It can help you in two ways. First, it uses language that people actually speak, and helps to make clearer much of the jargon used in marketing. Two examples: you read in a marketing magazine about FMCG; but the author, assuming that everybody knows what this means, fails to explain it. The Dictionary comes to your aid. In a marketing textbook, you come across a term that the author uses and discusses, but which you still cannot fully appreciate. The Dictionary may help to resolve this. Second, on an even more pragmatic level, it explains marketing practices and procedures. You may, for example, be interested in how the monitoring of Web site hits is carried out. The Dictionary comes to the rescue by explaining ABC// electronic monitoring. Or, you may be undecided whether to use litho or flexography for a catalogue or brochure. The Dictionary helps you to make up your mind, and to understand what your printer is saying. Value for time and effort In an ordinary dictionary, you usually find little but definitions. Here, you find a more encyclopedic approach, and good value for your time and effort. The Dictionary includes clear explanations, observation and comment, plus guidelines and advice based on practical experience. For example: Video News Release Broadcast communications, Editorial, Public relations A corporate or product news item, prepared and edited before submission to television stations; popularly referred to as VNR. Current wisdom on VNRs is that, on a busy news day a VNR can get an item on air mainly because it is already in the can; that is, complete and ready for transmission. However, mere submission of a VNR will not guarantee airtime. . . 1
Slide 9: INTRODUCTION References and associations In addition to marketing concepts, tools and techniques, the Dictionary abounds with appropriate references, associations and cross-references. These are designed to help you extend and amplify your knowledge and understanding of marketing practice. Associations include: Advertising; Artwork; Brand management; Business; Campaigns; Communications; Composition; Consumer behaviour; Controls and legislation; Copywriting; Corporate; Creative; Desktop publishing; Distribution; E-commerce; Economics; Editorial; E-marketing; Graphics; Information technology; Internet; Media; Merchandising; Organizations; Packaging; Paper; Photography; Planning; Print; Public relations; Publishing; Radio; Retailing; Sales; Television; Typography; Video; Web sites; Word-processing. Associations and connotations Each entry heading is shown in bold, followed by associations and connotations in italics. Associations are the contexts in which the term or concept is used or associated. This does not signify that each association is exclusive to that entry. For example: Deadline Advertising, Public relations, Publishing The date or time planned and set for the completion of a job, or for the submission of copy to a newspaper, magazine or printer. (This indicates that a deadline procedure is in common use in advertising, PR and publishing. However, it is not exclusive to these activities. It is also used in project management, building, and a wide range of business and professional work.) Spike Editorial, Newsroom practice, Press media, Public relations, Publishing Used as a verb, this means to kill a story with no possibility of reinstatement. The term comes from pre-computer times, when editors used a piece of desk-furniture, a spike, to collect non-viable stories for disposal. . . (The term is used in press media newsrooms, by editors and journalists, though not normally in public relations practice. However, PR executives need to be aware of what could happen to their news stories if they are inappropriate to the media to which they are sent.) Technical guidelines Many entries are accompanied by guidelines on how techniques are used. Often there will be more than one definition for the same term. For example: 2
Slide 10: INTRODUCTION Filler Desktop publishing, Editorial, Print, Publishing A piece of copy or an illustration inserted on a page to fill up a column; an editorial technique used before the days of DTP and computerized typesetting. Today, an editor can often juggle page elements on the screen so that fillers are unnecessary. However, a filler often makes a page easier on the eye than it would be with a strictly clinical layout. To enjoy some really delightful fillers, read the New Yorker. Filler Paper, Paper-making A material, usually a white mineral substance such as china clay, titanium dioxide or calcium carbonate. When added to the material from which the paper is made, it increases its opacity, improves its flatness, and imparts a smoother surface to the finished product. Body copy in bold In many entries, the text is interspersed with words in bold. This is meant to highlight them and call them to your attention. They do not indicate crossreferences. Essential repetition Some definitions appear in more than one place, sometimes repeating the same copy. This is deliberate, because it allows explanations to be presented complete and self-contained. Spelling and language Although this Dictionary is meant for international consumption, it has been written and produced in the UK. It follows that the spellings used are those found in Queen’s English. Some spellings may differ from spelling conventions used in US English. This is because Americans, perhaps wisely, have deliberately simplified their language; whereas the British have not, despite encroachments from Hollywood. You will, of course, find the usual differences: colour for color, analyse for analyze, and so on. All language used here is Queen’s English, which is used by much of the English-speaking world, including Commonwealth countries. Appendix 1 lists over 200 differences between Queen’s English and US English. Errors and omissions Any lapsus calami or error of fact and procedure is mine. It would be unfair, and ignoble, to blame anyone else. On the other hand, if you find errors or omissions, 3
Slide 11: INTRODUCTION don’t just sit there and fume. Contact me via the publisher, and suggest corrections and additions. Since marketing and its technology are in constant change, there are bound also to be changes to the Dictionary over time. In return, I will acknowledge all contributions used in the next edition. You may then join gurus David Ogilvy, Martyn P Davis and Rosser Reeves, whose thought I admire and have mentioned several times in these pages. Intellectual honesty Marketing transcends questions of gender, age and creed. In most normal market economies, half of the market is male, half female. It is a poor marketer who either wastefully amalgamates the two, or throws away half her market, in the name of political correctness. It is an even poorer marketer who will allow himself to be bullied by pressure groups pushing political correctness. Unelected and unappointed, except by themselves, pressure groups have no mandate for controlling individual, private or public behaviour or thought. However, they do have a covert agenda for securing and enhancing their own political power. Stalin probably had a word for it. Throughout this book, for the sake of brevity, simplicity and style, ‘he’ is used to include ‘she’, and vice versa. Man, so to speak, embraces woman. Besides, he/ she, h-she, s-he and similar idiocies are not Queen’s English. What is more, they look gauche on the page and offend a reader’s intellect. In the words of my bank, in its terms and conditions, ‘Words importing a gender shall include all genders’. Can one be more intellectually honest than that? 4
Slide 12: Aa A Communications, Information technology A character used in many computer operating systems, denoting a disk drive in the system. Where a computer has several disk drives, alphabetical characters are used to differentiate them. The floppy disk is usually given A:; a second floppy disk, B:; the hard disk, C:; and any others, from D: onwards. Copy, graphics, data and other material are rendered portable by the use of floppy and Zip disks. Sending copy to a printer, for example, may be carried out in this way; or downloaded via a telephone line. AA Advertising organizations A common abbreviation for the Advertising Association in the United Kingdom. AAA The American Advertising Association. Advertising organizations AAAA Advertising organizations The American Association of Advertising Agencies. Web site: www.commercepark.com/AAAA/index.html. ABC Media research and planning Initials used by newspaper and magazine publishers to indicate that their circulations have been independently audited by the Audit Bureau of Circulations. This does not refer to audits of newspaper of magazine readership, which is entirely different. See Audit Bureau of Circulations. A, B, C1, C2, D, E Planning and research Social grade classification of target audiences, used by marketing planners. This is a simple and practical system for differentiating target groups. It is pragmatic, in the marketing sense, not the political. Social grades used in UK marketing communications: Grade A B Upper middle class Middle class Members Top businessmen; other leaders; key opinion-formers Senior executives; managers Approx % of UK population 2.7% 15.2% 5
Slide 13: ABOVE THE LINE C1 C2 D E Lower middle class Skilled working class Working class Lowest level of subsistence White-collar, white-blouse office workers Blue-collar factory workers Semi- and unskilled manual workers Poor pensioners; disabled; casual workers 24.1% 27.1% 17.8% 13.1% Identification of consumer needs and wants, UK socio-economic groups: Class Needs and wants: A Status-conferring products and services of high quality, eg investments, private schools, luxury travel and travel services; five-star hotels and cruises; expensive leisure activities; special interests, eg fine arts, music, wine and antiques. B Products and services with cachet, conferring aspirant status; banking, investment, insurance and life assurance; weekend breaks; three- and four-star hotels; good restaurants, night-clubs. C1 Products and services of above-average quality, conferring aspirant status; above-average-quality foreign holidays, fashion products, personal and domestic possessions; restaurants of slightly above-average quality; take-away meals; convenience foods; efficient kitchens; improving quality of home decor. Popular sports activities. C2 Average-quality products and services; mass-produced fashion and personal products; packaged holidays; convenience and fast foods; DIY products and personal effort in home improvements. Popular sports activities. D Economy-emphasized products and services; fast foods; above-average, routine consumption of fish and chips; packaged holidays and holiday camps. DIY activities. Much time and money spent on popular sports and leisure activities. E Product purchases of the most basic kind, heavily angled towards the best economic value. Occasional use of services, especially those most economically priced. See Socio-economic grades. Above the line Advertising campaign planning The metaphorical, horizontal line drawn by advertising planners, to differentiate between those media that allow agency commission, and those that do not. Above the line: cinema outdoor press radio television The line: 6
Slide 14: ACCELERATOR Below the line: advertising gifts body media (T-shirts, hats etc) direct mail exhibitions mini media packaging point-of-sale material print public relations retail display and merchandising sales promotion sponsorship Abrasion resistance Paper, Print The resistance of a printing ink to removal by rubbing and scratching. Absolute placement Desktop publishing The exact position on a page where a line of copy is to start; the position the corner of a graphic element is to be anchored to. See Origin. Absorbency Paper, Print The extent to which a paper will take up and hold a liquid. This is important in litho printing, in which both water and oil-based inks are used. Absorption The first stage of drying of an ink when printed on porous material. Print Absorption Marketing planning The allocation of the costs of marketing a product or service, so that they are absorbed in the final calculation. These include fixed costs, such as rent and business tax, and variable costs such as raw materials and delivery. Absorption pricing Marketing planning The calculation of all costs to be taken into account when marketing a product, in order to determine a viable price for it. The technique used covers the entire cost of marketing a product or service, so that the selling price also covers everything. Accelerator Marketing A situation in the marketing of consumer products. A small change in the demand for a product can lead to a big change in the demand for the systems and machinery for producing it. This in turn can lead to changes in the retail price of the product. 7
Slide 15: ACCESS Access Information technology To find or go to an area of computer memory or auxiliary storage for storing or retrieving information. When you have retrieved an application program or file from a disk, you are said to have accessed it. Accordion fold Print Also called a concertina fold. A leaflet folded like the bellows of a piano accordion. All sides are available for printing. Sometimes lack of copy, or of imagination, results in the reverse side remaining unprinted. This may be deliberate when the intention is to have the recipient pull out the concertina into a single sheet. Advertising, PR and marketing agency administration Account Another name for a client organization whose advertising, PR or marketing business is being handled by its agency. Also applied to a department of a client organization that supplies the business on which the agency produces campaigns. In sales administration, this is the term used for an invoice. Account executive Advertising, PR and marketing agency personnel An executive responsible for the day-to-day management of a client’s business within an agency. This person ‘handles the account’; in other words looks after the client’s day-to-day business within the agency. In actual practice, the account executive is also responsible for bringing in the business, and ensuring that the client remains loyal to the agency. The account executive represents the agency to the client and, ideally, the client to the agency. At its most basic, this position is akin to a ballboy on a tennis court. At its most sophisticated, businesslike and practical, a person responsible for the planning, organization supervision, implementation and analysis of clients’ campaigns. This executive, however, is expected to sell the agency’s services, as well as provide advice and expertise. Sometimes called an account manager. Account group Advertising, PR and marketing agency administration A division of an agency, often under a board director, responsible for handling a number of accounts. Sometimes a group is set up as a profit centre within the agency. Accreditation Business When a company is appointed to act on behalf of a client organization as its agent, it is said to be accredited. Advertising agencies, by contrast, are actually principals in contracts undertaken for clients, and therefore are not agents in the usually accepted and legal sense. Acetate Artwork, Production Transparent plastic sheeting used for underlays in the creation of artwork. Also used for the protection of layouts and finished artwork. The acetate overlay enables you to examine the artwork underneath without accidentally putting beery thumb-marks 8
Slide 16: ACRONYM on it. It also discourages clients from making amendments to the artwork itself in marker or ballpoint pen. Artwork, after all, is expensive to produce. Achromatic lens Photography A lens design using different elements to bring different colours of the spectrum to a common focus. Chromatic aberration is the inability of a lens to bring all the colour components of light to a single point of focus. White light can be split into seven main colour components in a spectrum. As each component enters a lens, it is refracted – bent – to a different degree. The red constituent comes to focus at the rear of a film plane, the blue closest to the lens; green falls roughly between the two. In an exposure, a single lens may produce colour fringes, particularly around highlights. By using an achromatic lens, different colours are brought into focus at the film plane. An achromatic lens doublet comprises two types of glass, each with a different refractive index – the ability to bend light. A two-element achromatic lens brings only two colours to the same focal point, usually blue and green. The third colour, red, is already correctly focused. Acid-free Paper, Print Paper that does not contain free acid. During manufacture, precautions are taken to eliminate active acid in the furnish. This helps to increase the life of the finished paper. See Furnish. Acknowledgement Business administration The written or spoken expression of thanks to an individual or organization, for the use of their material. Acknowledgements are used in advertising and public relations material where attribution is required. ACORN Marketing planning, Marketing research Acronym for A Classification Of Residential Neighbourhoods. A research system that classifies people according to where they live. Some years ago, it dawned on a certain bright research team that the places people choose to live are directly related to their spending power. Of course, the fact had been staring everybody in the face for centuries, but these particularly fertile and disciplined minds saw its commercial potential. ACORN is now an indispensable part of marketing planning and practice. Acrobat Information technology, Marketing communications, Print A commercial software program for viewing and editing portable document formats (PDFs). The Acrobat distiller is the program within Acrobat used for generating PDFs from PostScript files; the Acrobat reader is the program used for viewing PDFs. Acronym Business, Language, Marketing, Promotion The initials of a group of words put together to form a separate, identifying word. Acronyms are differentiated from initials, in that they are capable of being 9
Slide 17: ACROSS THE NETWORK pronounced like a word. NATO, for example, is formed from North American Treaty Organization. Certain familiar logos may also qualify as acronyms. A good example is 3M, formed from the words Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Corporation; it is used in all the company’s marketing communications. Across the network Media In media scheduling, specifying that an advertiser’s commercials shall be transmitted simultaneously throughout a named network. Marketing research, Research Activity sampling In attempting to evaluate a particular activity in a specified target audience, the audience is observed using a range of discontinuous tests. The tests enable the researcher to estimate and quantify the incidence of the activity. Adaptation Art direction A press advertisement or piece of print in one size or shape when modified to another size or shape. This is usually referred to as an adapt. Adaptation of the creative concept for a press advertisement is routinely made for other media, such as posters and point-of-sale material. Ad-click Advertising, Internet A term denoting that an advertisement on a Web site has been clicked by a visiting Internet surfer. Clicks are counted and totalled, giving some quantitative value to the advertisement and, by implication, to the Web site. Ad Council Advertising organizations The common abbreviation for The Advertising Council of the USA. A private corporation conducting public service advertising campaigns. Business, Marketing Added value Augmenting and increasing the value of a product, service or business activity, by adding services and features to the actual product, and promoting them with the product. Guarantees, warranties, free delivery and support services are good current examples of this. In manufacturing, value can be added to materials by processing and handling. Envelopes, diaries, keyrings and pens can be overprinted with company logos and campaign slogans. Lumps of iron can be turned into swords, and timber into furniture, by expert labour and a good deal of sweat. Address A location in computer memory or auxiliary storage. Information technology Address line Advertising, Creative That part of an advertisement, brochure, leaflet, Web site or other promotional material containing the address of the advertiser. This is usually, but not always, 10
Slide 18: ADOBE PHOTOSHOP the address to which a coupon or reply card should be returned. Be careful to specify which is which. In a coupon or reply card, another valid address line is the one filled in by the enquirer when requesting information or ordering a product. Do not confuse the two, or you may confuse the recipient. Ad hoc Advertising, Business, Marketing An over-used, and sometimes misused, Latin phrase, taken to mean a ‘one-off’. Its real meaning is ‘for this particular purpose’, or ‘special’. In marketing and advertising, an ad hoc campaign is one created and run as a one-off or short-term effort; to respond to a competitive attack, for example, or a temporary downturn in a market. Ad hoc survey A one-off research survey on a specific topic. Research Admark Advertising, Controls, Web sites An opt-in scheme in the UK, allowing member advertisers and publishers to promote their support for legal, decent, honest and truthful advertising. This is done by displaying the Admark icon on their paid-for advertisements, and by providing information about the scheme on their Web sites. The growth of the Internet, and consequent emergence of online advertising, has led to the need for a ‘safe harbour’ scheme that tells consumers who has pledged to follow advertising’s rules. The Admark scheme is the result. Admark was developed by the Committee of Advertising Practice (CAP), the UK industry body that writes and enforces the British Codes of Advertising and Sales Promotion (the Codes). It has been welcomed by the Advertising Standards Authority, the independent body that administers the Codes. Administered prices Marketing Another word for retail price maintenance. It refers to the fixing of prices within an industry, designed to eliminate price differences at the point of sale. In the UK, RPM was prohibited in 1963; however, certain products still display this characteristic. Adobe Illustrator Information technology, Marketing communications, Studio work Commercial vector image creation and editing software. This is one of the many graphical applications collectively termed ‘drawing’ programs. Adobe PhotoShop Information technology, Marketing communications, Studio work Commercial software for raster image creation, editing and format translation. This is one of the many graphical applications collectively termed ‘painting’ programs. Painting applications work by manipulating the values of pixels. 11
Slide 19: ADOPTION OF INNOVATION Adoption of innovation Marketing Consumers taking up a new product or service fall into three main categories. In marketing jargon, innovators are those who try or buy on or near launch day. The next group of consumers to do this are termed early adopters, followed chronologically by early and late majority buyers. Last to adopt the innovation are usually called laggards, though this does not demean their value as customers. Outdoor advertising Adshel A roadside poster illuminated from within a transparent or translucent shell. Usually sited in high streets, shopping precincts and other busy locations. Popularly used at main road passenger bus shelters, rail and bus stations. Adshel is also the poster contractor’s trade name. Internet communications ADSL Initials for Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line. A system for super-fast access for home Net users. It allows access at between 10 and 40 times normal speeds using a standard telephone line. It is usually described as ‘always on’. See ISDN. Advance Authorship, Publishing Money paid to a writer or artist in advance of publication of their work. This sum is offset against any royalties that the work may produce. Advert Advertising terminology A corrupt form of the word advertisement, used by amateurs; professionals use either ‘ad’ or ‘advertisement’. Advertisement Advertising A paid-for promotional announcement. This applies both to press and broadcast media; though, strangely, not to printed literature or direct mail. It is gradually being adopted universally to advertising on the Internet; initially, banners were the only form of advertising to quality for the term. Advertisement department Advertising, Publishing In newspaper, magazine and poster publishing, and broadcast media, this is the department dedicated to the promoting and selling of advertising space and airtime. Advertisement manager Advertising, Publishing A senior executive managing an advertisement department, responsible to an advertisement director. This is usually a sales manager, who not only controls the sales staff of the department but is also an experienced salesperson. Often, the advertisement manager also commissions advertising and other material promoting his publication, poster sites, radio or TV station as an advertising medium. Do not confuse this term with advertising manager, who is an entirely different animal and works within an advertiser’s organization. 12
Slide 20: ADVERTISING AGENCY Advertisement rate card Media A tariff booklet, leaflet or card showing the costs of advertisement space or airtime. The card also usually contains terms of business, and mechanical production details. Advertisement wrap Advertising, Outdoor advertising Advertisements placed on windows of vehicles and buildings, so that the image appears on the outer side while remaining see-though from the inside. Vehicle wrap includes images on taxis, buses, trams and trains; building wrap, images on buildings, roadside shelters and so on. The first full wrap building project was on four sides of the Panasonic building in Paris in 1998. Several different designs have now been wrapped on this building. Advertising Marketing communications techniques Many people have attempted to define and describe this difficult subject. The answer depends on who you are, and also what your investment is. Here are a few concepts to be going on with: n For advertisers, it is presenting the most persuasive message to the right n n n n n prospective customers for the product or service, at the lowest possible cost. This is the official IPA definition. For marketers, it is an economical communication system, aimed at achieving fast payoff of marketing investment. For agency account management, it is a means of reaching and influencing a chosen group of people quickly and cost-effectively. For academics, it is a specialized form of communication used in marketing, to influence choice and buying decisions. For creatives, it is a highly skilled creative trade, demanding imagination and creative flair of an extremely high order. For everybody else: it is paid-for, non-personal, promotional communications through mass media. If you have a single definition that describes advertising to perfection, dear reader, please send it, care of the publisher of this book. You will get proper credit for it in the next edition; possibly achieve a degree of immortality as well. See Public relations. Advertising agency Advertising business A specialist business dedicated to researching, planning, producing and placing advertising campaigns and material for its clients. The original advertising agents were freelance representatives selling advertising space for newspapers in the 19th century. Demand by advertisers for extra services, such as design and copywriting, compelled the agents to supply them. Since nobody can serve two opposing masters, agents’ loyalties shifted from publisher to advertiser. Today, advertising agencies serve their clients as independent specialists; they are not ‘agents’ in the legal sense, but principals. Agency services include: 13
Slide 21: ADVERTISING APPROPRIATION n n n n n n n n n n n n copywriting for press, print and broadcast media; design; direct marketing services and activities; exhibition design, booking and implementation; marketing planning and services; media planning and buying; photography; print; production; researching and planning advertising campaigns; sales promotion; Web site creation. Some agencies concentrate on single specialist activities, such as creative services. See À la carte agency. Advertising appropriation Advertising planning An allocation of money for advertising activities. Advertising departments can usually work this out for themselves, but most substantial advertisers have agencies to do it for them. An appropriation may cover part of an advertising campaign, such as expenditure on press or television, or the whole of it including print and direct mail. Advertising Association Advertising representative organizations The Association, formed in 1926, is a federation of 26 trade associations, representing advertisers, agencies, the media and support services. It speaks for all sides of an industry with an annual worth of over £14 billion*. Its constituent bodies include: AMCO BMRA BPIF CAA CAM CRCA DMA DPA DSA IAA IPA ISBA Association of Media & Communications Specialists British Market Research Association British Printing Industries Federation Cinema Advertising Association Communication Advertising & Marketing Education Foundation Commercial Radio Companies Association Direct Marketing Association (UK) Ltd Directory & Database Publishers Association Direct Selling Association International Advertising Association – UK Chapter Institute of Practitioners in Advertising Incorporated Society of British Advertisers *At 1 January 2000 14
Slide 22: ADVERTISING ASSOCIATION ISP ITV MOTA MRS MS NPA NS OAA PAGB PPA PRCA RM SCBG SNPA Institute of Sales Promotion ITV Network Ltd Mail Order Traders’ Association Market Research Society Marketing Society Newspaper Publishers Association Ltd Newspaper Society Outdoor Advertising Association of Great Britain Ltd Proprietary Association of Great Britain Periodical Publishers Association Public Relations Consultants Association Royal Mail Satellite and Cable Broadcasters’ Group Scottish Newspaper Publishers Association Other member organizations: BSkyB BT – Yellow Pages Channel Four Television GMTV The Association is a non-profit-making company, limited by guarantee. It is funded by a combination of subscriptions, donations and revenue-raising activities such as seminars and publications. Its remit is ‘to promote and protect the rights, responsibilities and role of advertising’ in the UK. It is also committed to upholding the freedom to advertise in the UK. This is in line with Article 10 of the European Convention of Human Rights, which recognizes commercial freedom of speech as a right, together with political and artistic freedoms of speech. The organization exists to provide a coordinated service in the interests of its wider membership; that is, the individual companies that make up this large, diverse and competitive business. It is also concerned with the mutual interests of the business as a whole. It operates in a complementary way with the vested interests of its members who have specific roles for their individual sectors. The Association speaks as ‘the common voice’ on: n promoting public understanding of, and respect for, commercial communic- ation and its role in promoting competition, innovation and economic and social progress in society; n upholding standards and the principle of self-regulation; n providing information, research and statistics about the advertising business; n combating unjustified restrictions and outright bans on commercial communication for freely and legally available products or services. The Association operates a number of departments and activities, including: 15
Slide 23: ADVERTISING CAMPAIGN n n n n n n n n communications; food advertising unit; information centre; self-regulation; seminars; statistical and other publications; statistical services; Web site, www.adassoc.org.uk. Advertising campaign Advertising The planning, creation, administration and implementation of specific advertising activities for the fulfilment of specific marketing objectives. Sometimes advertising campaigns are carried out as stand-alone activities; more often they are part of a wider plan, which could include sales promotion, corporate identity, public and industrial relations activities. Advertising manager Advertising administration A manager or executive within an advertiser’s organization, with specific responsibility for the management of the organization’s advertising. This may sound tautological. However, this job is often confused with that of advertisement manager – an entirely different animal with an entirely different job. The advertising manager is responsible for buying advertising on behalf of his company, whereas the advertisement manager’s job is selling it on behalf of his publisher. He, or she, runs the advertising department of the company; hires and fires the staff; plans and implements its advertising effort; calculates and prepares the budgets for the approval of the company’s directors; appoints, briefs and liaises with advertising agencies and evaluates their output; commissions work from creatives, photographers, printers and exhibition contractors. In some organizations, the advertising manager is called marketing services manager; sometimes publicity manager, particularly when he is also responsible for public relations. Media Advertising medium The advertising business comprises two main streams of activity: the message and the medium. A medium is any means of communication that enables an advertiser to convey his message to target audiences. Hence, the press is a medium. So are television, radio, exhibitions, cinema, posters, taxi-cab doors, bus and train interiors, direct mail, directories, catalogues and the Internet. The plural of the word is media, often used, and abused, as a singular. Advertising package Media When advertisement space is bought in groups of insertions rather than single spaces, these are termed packages. The same applies to airtime, particularly radio, where spots are almost always bought in packages. 16
Slide 24: ADVERTISING RESEARCH Advertising rates Media The cost of advertisement space and airtime, as shown in publishers’ and television and radio station rate cards. Advertising research This activity includes: n n n n n n n n Marketing research pre-campaign research; concept research; copy testing; media research; mid-campaign research; motivational research; post-campaign research; tracking studies. Pre-campaign research To determine the likely effect of advertising effort before any serious money is spent on it. Includes research into: n brand share; n consumer behaviour; n product use. Concept research Determining the most motivating copy themes and platforms before the creative specialists get to work on building the campaign. Copy testing The use of panels of consumers to assess press advertisement copy and visuals, TV and radio scripts and other creative effort. This takes place, of course, before any money is spent on production proper. The results either confirm the creative team’s judgement, or indicate how it can be modified to achieve the best chance of success. Or scrapped. Media research a. Evaluating the circulations or audiences of media during the media planning stage of a campaign. b. A form of research in which readers, listeners and viewers are studied. The objective is to find out who has seen or heard the advertising, and how many of them there are; then to evaluate their response to it. Mid-campaign research Quizzing and discussing with panels of readers, listeners or viewers, while a campaign is in progress. Often, depending on the research brief, this is done by 17
Slide 25: ADVERTISING SPACE interviewing consumers in the street or in panels. For business-to-business campaigns, it is sometimes done by telephoning respondents during office hours. Motivational research Seeks out the motives of people in relation to their behaviour. For example, why mothers buy toothpaste; why executives buy certain types of car. Post-campaign research As mid-campaign research, but after a campaign has ended. Useful for comparing the results with pre-campaign and mid-campaign findings. Later, for matching the money spent on the campaign with the product sales anticipated and actually achieved. Tracking studies Usually carried out before a campaign breaks, then again after the campaign has finished. It seeks to compare the awareness of the brand at both ends of the research; the take-up of the product; consumers’ declared intention to try the brand compared with the actual take-up; their knowledge of what the product is, and what it does; awareness of the advertising, or selected features of it. There is a problem here. Although advertising does make marketing run, it is not the only measure that does. Sales force effort, public relations, sales promotion, distribution and other marketing tools also influence the progress of marketing campaigns and their results. Tracking studies are usually injected with control features, so that they are able to indicate with more accuracy the value of the advertising effort. Advertising space Media Commercially run newspapers and magazines devote some of their pages to advertising. The revenue from this advertising space helps to pay their overheads and make a profit for shareholders. From the advertiser’s point of view, the value of advertising space depends on the ability of the publication to reach and influence closely defined target audiences. Advertising Standards Authority Advertising controls This is the independent organization that polices and regulates the advertising industry. It was set up by the industry itself to protect the public from misleading and offensive advertising, and to protect the industry from unwanted legislation. It also administers and enforces the British Codes of Advertising and Sales Promotion (qv). According to their own statement, the Advertising Standards Authority promotes and enforces the highest standards in all non-broadcast advertisements in the UK. The Authority’s responsibility, and its Codes, cover: n advertisement promotions; n advertisements and promotions covered by the Cigarette Code; n advertisements in newspapers and magazines; 18
Slide 26: ADVERTISING STANDARDS AUTHORITY n n n n n n n n n n n advertisements in non-broadcast electronic media such as computer games; advertising on the Internet; advertorial; aerial advertising; brochures, leaflets, circulars, mailings, catalogues and other printed publications containing advertising; cinema and video commercials; facsimile transmissions containing advertising or promotional material; mailing lists, except for business-to-business; posters, transport and other outdoor advertising; sales promotions; viewdata services. The Codes do not apply to broadcast commercials, which are the responsibility of the Independent Television Commission and the Radio Authority. The Authority acts independently of both the government and the advertising industry. It operates in the public interest, and in cooperation with the whole of the industry, by ensuring that everyone who commissions, prepares, places and publishes advertisements observes the British Codes of Advertising and Sales Promotion. Together, the Codes require that advertisements and sales promotions should be: n in line with the principles of fair competition generally accepted in business; n legal, decent, honest and truthful; n prepared with a sense of responsibility to consumers and society. The Codes are devised by the Committee of Advertising Practice. CAP members include advertising, sales promotion and media businesses. The CAP provides a free and confidential copy advice service for the industry. If an advertisement or promotion breaks the Codes, advertisers are asked to amend or withdraw it. If they choose not to comply, a number of sanctions are available: n Adverse publicity. The ASA’s monthly reports contain details of complaint adjudications. These include the names of the advertisers, agencies and media involved. The reports are circulated to the media, government agencies, the advertising industry, consumer bodies and the public. Published cases receive extensive media coverage, and are also available through a fully searchable database on the ASA’s Web site. n Refusal of further advertising space. Media can be asked to enforce their standard terms of business, which require compliance with the Codes. They may decide to refuse further space to advertisers until the advertisement has been amended. n Poster pre-clearance. Posters that are the subject of upheld complaints on grounds of taste, decency and social responsibility may be subject to a compulsory two-year vetting procedure through the CAP Copy Advice team. 19
Slide 27: ADVERTISING STANDARDS AUTHORITY n Removal of trade incentives. Advertisers and their agencies may jeopardize their membership of trade and professional organizations. This could result in the loss of financial and other trading benefits. n Legal proceedings. Ultimately, the ASA can refer a misleading advertisement to the Office of Fair Trading. The OFT can obtain an injunction to prevent advertisers using the same or similar claims in future advertisements. n Repeat offenders. Most advertisers who have complaints upheld by the ASA agree to remove their advertisements or make the required changes. However, there are companies that persistently break the Codes, and a special procedure is used to deal with them. Of the offenders dealt with since the procedure was set up, virtually all gave assurances that they would improve. One was referred to the Office of Fair Trading under the Control of Misleading Advertisements (Amendment) Regulations 2000 – the ASA’s legal backstop. This company subsequently agreed to amend its advertising. Once an offending company is identified, an assessment of its track record is made. This determines the type of commitment the ASA needs to ensure the offender will bring future advertising in line with the Codes. Sometimes a reminder about the Copy Advice service, and a commitment to take advice more often, is enough. In other cases, the ASA may insist on an undertaking to pre-vet future advertising. However, this happens only in the most serious cases. After a commitment has been given, the ASA monitors the company’s advertising for a time, to ensure that it is keeping to its assurances. However, the best way for this process to be avoided is for advertisers to observe the Codes in the first place, and maintain confidence in the system. Mail order and sales promotions complaints As part of its role in administering the British Codes of Advertising and Sales Promotion, the ASA investigates complaints from consumers about the non-receipt of goods, refunds and sales promotion offers. The advertisers need to be aware that the Codes require that the delivery date for mail order transactions should be no more than 30 days unless otherwise indicated in the advertisement. If there is a delay in the fulfilment of an order and the customer wishes to be reimbursed, the advertiser must provide a full refund. If unwanted mail order goods are returned undamaged within seven working days, the advertiser must send a full refund to the customer. Direct marketing list and database complaints The British Codes of Advertising and Sales Promotion regulate the use of personal information for direct marketing purposes. The direct marketing rules cover the obtaining, compiling, processing, management and use of personal information for the purpose of marketing products and services to the public through targeted and personalized mail. All complaints are investigated on the understanding that 20
Slide 28: AGENCY AUDIT previous direct requests by the complainants to the advertisers have proved unsuccessful. It is often not possible, however, to establish whether this is so. See Radio Authority, Independent Television Commission, British Codes of Advertising and Sales Promotion, CAP. Advertising strategy Advertising planning The planning of an advertising campaign, complete in all its aspects, designed to fulfil a marketing brief. Advertorial Media A term combining advertising and editorial. An advertisement written and designed to look like an editorial. Popular with advertisers in the past, and usually highly effective in terms of response, this is today allowed only when headed by the words ‘Advertisement’, ‘Advertisement feature’ or similar phrase. This is because the media fear that their readers will be fooled into believing that such advertisements really are editorial, and that products and services promoted in this way are endorsed by the editor and publisher. The Advertising Standards Authority polices this policy and regulates the advertisers accordingly. Aerial advertising Media Advertising displayed from aircraft, airships or balloons. Two of the best-known vehicles are the airships carrying the logos and slogans Dunlop and Fuji Film. Aeroplanes trailing banners and streamers are also used, though not now over urban areas. This is often to be seen at seaside resorts, where aircraft trail their banners along the shoreline several hundred metres out to sea. Hot-air balloons often display the logos of their sponsors. Some balloons are even designed to represent sponsors’ packaging; balloons representing bottles of Coke and Pepsi, and cans of Virgin Cola, can be seen at rallies, for example. Aerosol Packaging A word used to describe a metal container, pressurized inside, which dispenses its contents in the form of a fine liquid spray. Pressing on its actuator, usually at the top of the container, releases the contents into the atmosphere. This definition is only partly true; the spray itself is the aerosol, not the container. After-sales service Customer relationship management To fulfil the terms of a purchase contract, a supplier may be obliged to maintain a product in full working order after its sale to a customer. Many suppliers also offer technical advice and support following a sale; usually by telephone or over the Internet. This is good customer relations, with a view to long-term loyalty and further sales in the course of time. Agency audit Marketing, advertising and PR business Checks are often made by clients into their agencies’ and consultants’ performance and business practice. Such audits can cover not only the efficiency and costeffectiveness of agencies, but their probity as well. Clients may feel entitled to 21
Slide 29: AGENT examine the invoices of agencies’ suppliers, such as media, creative and production, and the mark-ups made in their own invoices. Agencies and consultancies have the option of refusing to submit to audits, but clients have the whip hand, and may be powerful enough to take their business elsewhere. Agent Advertising, Business, Marketing In the usually-accepted sense of the term, an individual or organization representing others, with their verbal or written consent. However, in the case of advertising and marketing agencies, the word agent is a convention, rather than legal terminology. An advertising agency is actually a principal in business transactions. Even though an agency works for and carries out work and purchases for its clients, media, creative and production for example, these transactions are made as principals in the contracts, not as agents. Separate contracts are drawn up between the agency and its clients for these activities. In cases of client default, as when an advertiser goes into liquidation, suppliers have no recourse to clients for payment. The agency has to pay up. AIDA Advertising creativity An acronym for Attention, Interest, Desire, Action. An important communication discipline employed in creating advertisements and print. Advertising is not an art form: it is part of the tough business of competitive marketing communications. A discipline for creating those communications effectively is therefore vital. This may sound academic, possibly a little naïve, but it’s simple common sense. Those of us in the marketing communications business know that the arena we work in is not the supermarket, the chainstore or the showroom. It is not even the press advertisement, the TV or radio commercial. Nor yet the leaflet, brochure or poster. It is the human mind. It is here that we get the reactions to marketing communications, advertising, public relations and sales promotion messages we create and deliver. It is where the action that produces a sale begins to take place. AIDA is a discipline of progressive steps in the process of promoting a product, a service or an idea. It is an intellectual tool that helps you to achieve the levels of understanding you need to write sales-winning copy and produce motivating visuals and dynamic illustrations. It also provides you with the levels of understanding you want your target reader to achieve so that you achieve the response you want. As every successful salesman knows: A First, you must seize your reader’s, viewer’s or listener’s ATTENTION. I You must then tell him something important that appeals to his self-INTEREST. D You must arouse a strong DESIRE to try or buy your product; or send for your literature; or make an enquiry; or ask for a sales representative to call. Or all these things at different times. Your primary objective at this stage is get a decision in favour of your proposition, product or brand. A Finally, you must urge your potential customer to take the ACTION you want. 22
Slide 30: ALIGNMENT This action must be in line with your marketing plans. For this reason alone, it is essential to plan your AIDA before you begin writing and designing any marketing communication. Why do we need this carefully structured thinking? Because they don’t want to read it, look at it or hear it. Your job, of course, is to entice and seduce them into reading, viewing and listening to your promotional material – and with enthusiasm! See Conviction. Aided recall Advertising research A multiple-choice interviewing technique during which interviewees choose responses to questions from a list. AIR Average issue readership. Media, Research Artwork, Production Airbrush A studio tool for retouching and illustration work. Basically a spray gun, powered by compressed air. The operator directs a fine spray of coloured ink or paint on to the artwork or photoprint being prepared or retouched. In plate-making, an airbrush is used with an abrasive-like pumice to remove spots and other unwanted areas from the metal. Air date The date on which a radio or TV commercial is broadcast. Radio, Television Air-dried Paper, Print Paper dried slowly in a warm current of air, or over skeleton drum dryers, not by conventional drying cylinders. Airtime Radio, Television The amount of time during which radio or TV entertainment or advertising is allocated or actually transmitted. Aisle Retailing In supermarkets, the display cabinets, often called gondolas, contain products for sale. The passages between the gondolas are the aisles. À la carte agency Advertising business An advertising or marketing specialist company offering one particular aspect of service, eg creative services, is termed à la carte. This is in contrast to full service marketing and advertising agencies, whose services include media planning and buying, marketing, public relations and sales promotion. Alignment Artwork, Desktop publishing, Production, Typography The positioning of type or graphics on a page, so that the horizontals and verticals are accurate. 23
Slide 31: ALPHA TESTING Alpha testing Marketing, Product research A technique for assessing the potential success of a product or service, done within the company or marketing organization rather than in the marketplace. Alterations Artwork, Desktop publishing, Type, Typography, Word-processing Amendments made to text after proofing. Sometimes called corrections. Where the typesetter makes a mistake, he pays for the alteration. Where the originator or author makes the mistakes, these are called author’s corrections, and the author pays. Bearing in mind that it often costs £50 or more to amend a proof by even a comma, copywriters and authors beware. See Corrections. Marketing Alternative currencies Formats in which goods can be exchanged without resorting to actual money. These include trading stamps and redemption coupons, Air Miles and loyalty or reward scheme points. Most of these are based on the amount of money previously spent by the customer, accumulated by her, and later exchanged for discounts or gifts. AMA The American Marketing Association. Marketing organizations Amid matter Media buying An instruction to a media buyer to place an advertisement in a position surrounded by or adjacent to editorial. Sometimes termed within matter. Ampersand Desktop publishing, Typesetting, Typography The typographic short-form symbol for the word ‘and’ – &. Research Analysis The reduction of complex data into smaller and simpler elements, capable of being understood or worked more easily. An annual marketing plan, for example, may be expressed in diagrams and charts of various kinds, so that finance and physical tasks can be allocated more effectively. Anamorphic scan Artwork, Computer graphics, Studio work Scanning a piece of artwork so that the width and height are not enlarged or reduced in proportion. The image is modified to produce an image taller and narrower, or shorter and fatter, than the original. Angle Editorial, Journalism, Public relations The main basis and thrust of a story, giving it its identity and character. Journalists, and writers working in public relations, strive to find or create an angle for a story, especially where it does not constitute actual news. Human interest is often used as an angle in a story, representing a benefit, crisis or predicament presented from an individual human perspective. 24
Slide 32: ANNUAL REPORT AND ACCOUNTS Angle Film, Photography, Television The camera’s view of a photographic shot; high angle, low angle, and so on. The term is used to describe the act of facing a camera in a particular direction. Print technology Anilox In flexographic printing, the etched or knurled steel roller, which transfers ink to the printing substrate. The anilox surface is a regular pattern of cells. See Flexography. Animatic Advertising, Film, Television commercials, Video A pre-production technique, in which a commercial is presented to the client without incurring the mega-pound expense of an actual production. A sequence of illustrations is prepared, showing the progress of the commercial, and shot on a video camera. The illustrations usually follow the script and storyboard (qv). The client can then see what the commercial will look like, more or less. Sometimes, audiotape is employed for any accompanying music and sound effects. Many producers dislike animatics, since they do not present the full production values of the real thing. However, some advertisers with a spark of imagination like them, if only because they also save money. See Storyboard. Animation Artwork, Film, Television A technique for film-making, using individual frames photographed on film. These are drawn by hand or generated by computer. When projected at 24 or 25 frames per second, the effect on screen is an optical illusion of movement. The human eye and brain cannot resolve the individual frames projected at speed, and therefore blends them into smooth and seamless action. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was the first major commercial animation production. See Cell. Annual Media, Publishing A publication issued once a year. Annuals vary from yearbooks published by academic, learned and special-interest groups, to reference books and directories. Marketing industry annuals include the Marketing Manager’s Yearbook, Advertiser’s Annual (the ‘Blue Book’) and The Creative Handbook. Business, Corporate communications, Public relations A document issued by an organization showing its performance during the year in question. There is a legal requirement to produce the financial information; most companies also give corporate performance data, and projections for future performance. Many organizations create their annual reports with promotion in mind, and consider them part of their public relations effort. Many annual reports are lavishly illustrated in full colour, mainly to appeal to current and future Annual report and accounts 25
Slide 33: ANONYMOUS TESTING shareholders and investors. Some companies also issue special versions of their annual reports for employees, in the interests of good industrial relations. Anonymous testing Marketing research, Product research A form of competitive product testing in which different products of similar character are evaluated anonymously. This usually takes the form of anonymous or blank packaging. The idea is that the testing panel is able to assess all products being tested based on their differences and similarities. Marketing planning Ansoff matrix A format used when considering the relationship between marketing strategies and a company’s general business strategy. It is expressed as a diagrammatic box of four cells, highlighting market penetration and development, product development and diversification. This allows consideration of the various permutations that can exist in new and existing markets, and new and existing products. Answer print Television commercials, post-production A check print of a commercial after colour grading (qv). Release prints are produced when the director approves the answer print. Antique Paper, Print A high-quality, opaque, bulky paper grade, with a rough surface finish. It is made as deckle or straight edged, in various colours, laid or wove. It is characteristically an excellent printing surface; often used for expensive print, such as corporate literature. See Laid, Wove. ‘A’ paper sizes Print, Production The international standard for paper sizes. The basic unit of this standard is the square metre, dubbed A0. The sizes then run in descending order, corresponding to the way the paper is folded or cut. All the folded sizes have the same proportions, 1:1.414. Curiously, the higher the A number, the smaller the paper size. For example: Sheet size A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 See Paper sizes. Millimetres 1,841 × 1,189 594 × 841 420 × 594 297 × 420 210 × 297 148 × 210 105 × 148 74 × 105 52 × 74 26
Slide 34: APPLICATION SERVICE PROVIDER Aperture Photography, Reprographics Also termed a stop. The size of a lens diaphragm opening, through which light enters a camera to reach the film. Apertures are usually given in a series, preceded by the initial f; for example, f1.8, f2, f2.8, f4, f5.6, and so on. These figures, given equal illumination, give inverse degrees of exposure in geometrical progression. The higher the figure, the smaller the aperture. Thus, f2 admits more light than f4. The figure f2 also indicates that the diameter of the aperture is half the focal length of the lens. Photography, Reprographics Apochromatic A photographic, colour-corrected lens, which focuses blue, green and red in the same plane. Marketing communications, Product marketing Appeal The quality of a promotional message designed to satisfy the customer’s needs, wants or aspirations. Careful research is needed before committing such ideas to creative treatment. The same applies to the concept, creation and marketing of a product, especially its packaging. Application Communications technology, Information technology A computing task to be carried out on data, using appropriate software. An application program is a specific set of instructions dedicated to operating the computer in carrying out the application. Often, these programs are given incomprehensible names. ‘Word’ seems a reasonable name for a word-processing application program; ‘WordPerfect’ is even better. However, ‘PowerPoint’ and ‘Access’ could apply to anything. Application software is different from operating software, which controls the environment of a computer, or controls server or network operations. E-commerce, Information technology, Internet activity A company specializing in the management and delivery of software applications from a data centre, to client users across a wide area network. This can best be described as ‘software delivered as a service’. Client organizations can rent access to the software through Web technology, rather than own it, for ad hoc, monthly or pay-as-you-go fees. The main benefits to clients are: n n n n n n Application service provider appropriate cost savings; minimum use of the client’s own IT resources; predictable future costs; reduced initial investment; reduction in implementation times and associated problems; the possibility of fast up-grading and up-scaling. 27
Slide 35: APPRECIATION Appreciation Business, Marketing The rise in value of a business asset. This can apply to a company’s capital equipment as well as to its products, its marketing track record and its goodwill. The more successful a company gets in marketing its products and services, the greater the appreciation of its various assets. Advertising Appropriation The allocation of money for marketing activity. This includes its various individual elements, such as advertising, public relations, sales promotion and other parts of the marketing mix. The term is commonly applied to advertising budgets. APR Advertising, Business, Marketing Annual Percentage Rate. A figure given by banks and commercial companies, in relation to interest rates charged on financial transactions. In UK law, this figure must be quoted in such statements, and in the advertising of products and services where finance is offered. APR Communications technology, Information technology, Print, Studio work Automatic Picture Replacement. A low-resolution picture is placed in the file when the page is RIPping. The RIP substitutes the low-resolution picture for the corresponding high-resolution one. See Raster Image Processing. Arbitrary budgeting Advertising finance The calculation of an advertising budget without taking into account the specific objectives, costs, risks and prospects of the campaign to be carried out. This haphazard method is still used by companies under autocratic management. The strange thing is, where there is outstanding flair and business judgement within such management, arbitrary budgeting sometimes works; but it needs luck as well. Business communications, E-commerce, Information technology, Marketing communications Usually refers to the design or organization of a computer’s central processing unit; often, to the hardware and logical organization of a complete computer system. This is always an important consideration in the selection of computers for marketing and other business communications. In these cases, a computer’s architecture needs to support multiple, complex operations, vast amounts of data, often conveyed over long distances to huge numbers of recipients. Architecture E-commerce, Information technology, Internet activity, Studio work, Web page design The composition of Web pages, so that as many elements as possible are in place, to reduce or eliminate page make-up. Area composition 28
Slide 36: ASA Art Studio work Any visual element, whether photograph, illustration, drawing, lettering, graph, chart or pictogram. See Artwork. Art buyer Studio personnel A manager or executive responsible for commissioning and buying artwork, photography, retouching and other art speciality work. Art director Studio personnel Currently, the term applies to an art design specialist responsible for producing or adapting creative ideas in visual form. The idea may start as a marketing or advertising brief, a piece of copy, or an original piece of thinking by the art director. Years ago, this job was called commercial artist. As the salaries went up, so did the job title. The next title was visualizer. Again, the money and the status rose, and art director was the result. The work itself has changed but little, although the technology has changed a great deal. An art director is not necessarily a member of a board of directors, though many art directors skilled at administration do become creative directors. Artificial obsolescence Business, Marketing strategy, Product management A technique for inducing consumers to buy the next generation of a product or service. The existing product is superseded by making changes in design, increasing some of the essential or useful features, or simply changing the colour. The existing product is rendered out of date, or unfashionable, and the only thing the consumer can reasonable do is buy the new one. This technique can be observed at work in the marketing of computers, cars, insurance, fashion, food and toys. Art paper Print, Production Paper stock coated with china clay or similar substance, given a smooth surface for printing of the highest quality. Traditionally, art paper refers to wood-free, coated papers with a highly polished surface; and to matt coated stock. The better the surface presented to the printing plate, the higher the quality of the finished product. Artwork Artwork, Print, Production, Studio work Original material prepared for reproduction in print, at pre-film stage. The basis of artwork is graphics, illustrations and photography. ‘Complete artwork’, ‘artwork ready for camera’, and ‘camera-ready artwork’ includes typeset text. It implies complete material ready for making film and printing plates. At this stage, it also implies that no more material is to be added. ASA Photography Acronym: American Standards Association. A universally accepted measure of light-sensitivity of photographic film; the ‘speed’ rating of film stock. The higher the ASA figure, the ‘faster’ the film-speed, and the greater its sensitivity to light. 29
Slide 37: ASBOF The speed of film stock determines the aperture of the lens and exposure time. For example, in bright light, a fast film needs less exposure; a slow film needs more. If you are filming in low light conditions, an auditorium or a cave perhaps, you will need film stock with a high ASA rating, and probably a wider lens aperture. Maybe a slower shutter-speed as well. If you are filming at Le Mans, and need to capture fast-moving vehicles as they go by on the track, you will definitely need fast film and high shutter-speeds. On the other hand, if you are covering a garden party on a brilliantly sunny day, and are aiming for sharp portraits, consider a slower film, wider apertures and slower shutter-speeds. Advice: there’s a vast literature on photography and photographic materials. See Film speed, ISO. ASBOF Advertising controls Acronym: Advertising Standards Board of Finance. An arm of the UK Advertising Standards Authority, dedicated to raising funds for the running of the Authority’s activities. It does this by imposing a levy on display advertising in the press and other non-broadcast media. Ascender Desktop publishing, Typography In type, the part of a lower case character rising above the ‘x’ height. The characters affected are b, d, h, k and l. See Descender. ASCII Information technology Acronym: the American Standard Code for Information Interchange. A computer code that assigns a binary number to each alpha-numeric character. It does the same with non-printing characters used for controlling printers and other communication devices. ASCII text means straight text without formatting, the common basis of e-mail communications. ‘A’ series The international ISO range of sizes for paper and board. Paper sizes, Print ASP E-commerce, Information technology, Internet activity Application Service Provider (qv). Desktop publishing, Print, Production, Television, Typography Aspect ratio The vertical to horizontal ratio of a TV screen or sheet of paper. The domestic TV screen ratio is 3:4; that is, 3 high to 4 wide. Some of the new wide screens are ratio 3:7 or the current European 9:16; others have an even greater aspect ratio. Aspiration level Research The height to which consumers are judged to aspire when considering the purchase of a product or service. The aspiration is bound up in the ownership of the product, rather than its purchase. Sometimes the aspiration can be tapped by featuring the 30
Slide 38: ATTACHMENT price of a product, such as an expensive car. Parking such a car outside your house may help to give you the status or prestige you aspire to. Asset rich families Campaign planning, Marketing research A group in Experian’s financial classification system, Financial Strategy Segments (FSS). Built on MOSAIC and Pixel segmentation systems, FSS classifies the UK population by 7 broad groups and 31 financial types, covering the full financial spectrum. The complete list of groups is: n n n n n n n asset rich families; equity accumulation; grey lifestyles; money worth managing; parental dependency; small time borrowing; welfare borderline. See Financial Strategy Segments. Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Internet communications A system for high-speed access for home Net users. It allows access at between 10 and 40 times normal speeds using a standard telephone line. Usually referred to by its initials ADSL. Atmosphere Media Sometimes called editorial climate or entertainment climate. The environment of print or broadcast medium being evaluated as a suitable vehicle for advertising. Thus, the Daily Telegraph has a different ‘atmosphere’ from the Sun; and Channel 4 from Channel 5. The differences are most marked among commercial radio channels. Atmosphere Retailing The deliberate deployment of furniture, lighting, decor and other elements within a store so that they impact in a pre-planned way on customers. This can be related to the character of the store, or to the character of its customers. Some atmospheres are designed to hurry customers through the store and through the checkout; others can encourage customers to browse and buy more products while they are doing it. Such techniques can even influence customers in the quality and price of the products they buy. Attachment Communications, Information technology A file transferred together with an e-mail message. It can be of any type, such as text, graphics, advertisement, print file, picture, spreadsheet, slide-show, movie or animation. Caveat: computer viruses and worms are transferred in attachments; anti-virus protection is therefore essential, at both ends of the transmission. 31
Slide 39: ATTENTION SPAN Attention span Media, Research The length of time an individual will concentrate on a particular subject. Research may reveal how long a reader can be induced to concentrate on a particular advertisement in a newspaper. Television soap operas seem to suggest that the attention span of viewers is very short. The average length of a scene, particularly among the Australian soaps, is about 45 seconds. Advertising research Attention value If it is to have any impact, a press advertisement needs to attract and hold the attention of the reader. The extent to which an advertisement can do this can be quantified. A technique known as The Starch Model, devised in the USA by Daniel Starch, measures the effectiveness of advertisements using a structured checklist. From this, the actual page traffic of readers, and the effectiveness of advertisements, can be calculated. Attitude Consumer behaviour, Marketing research The mental standpoint of individuals on a subject, object, concept or proposition. This can reflect positive or negative thinking on that subject, and may indicate the action or reaction that may follow. It may also indicate a state of indifference in customers’ minds towards a subject or proposition. Attitude research Marketing research Research into individual attitudes towards an organization and its products. This is often done by group discussions under the direction of trained specialists. Focus groups are a current popular method of revealing attitudes to organizations, products and services, and to political concepts. Marketing Attributes Product features and consumer benefits are not the same. This is because the motives of producer and customer are different. From the producer’s point of view, sales may be paramount, and products designed with appropriate attributes or features to achieve this. The consumer, on the other hand, is usually looking for benefits, personal, family or corporate. To encourage purchase, the producer must therefore concentrate on benefits to the consumer, and ensure that the product’s attributes help to fulfil this objective. Attributes Desktop publishing, Typography The variations in the character of typefaces. These include regular, medium, light, heavy, bold, semi-bold, extra bold, ultra, extended, narrow, condensed, italic and bold italic. Attrition process Marketing The loyalty of a customer to a company, product or service may be gradually worn away by competitive activity, especially when the competition’s offerings are more appealing, attractive or cost-effective. The process of attrition can also occur under 32
Slide 40: AUDIO-VISUAL SALES AIDS pressure from competitors’ advertising and sales promotion. Stages in consumer life cycle often influence loyalty, as with cars, fashion, travel, holidays and leisure pursuits. Media, Research Audience flow During a television transmission, the extent to which the viewing audience increases or decreases. Audience research Media research A form of advertising research for campaign planning. It is usually concerned with investigating the characteristics of print and broadcast media, mainly for audience statistics. For print media, circulation, readership, demographics, costs and production data. For broadcast media, quality, quantity, demographics, lifestyle and costs; production costs are considered separately. Audiences Marketing, Media Groups of individuals selected by marketers as targets for products and promotional campaigns. This choice is usually refined by the ability of audiences to respond in the way the marketer requires. Thus, audiences in social grade A may be prime targets for Rolls-Royce; grades D and E may not be. This distinction influences the marketer’s selection of media used for reaching specified target audiences. See ACORN. Audio Advertising, Cinema and television commercials Advertising writers’ jargon for the sound or dialogue column of a script or storyboard. See Video. Audio-visual Presentations A combination of sound and vision techniques used in presentations. These include: n n n n n n n n and CD ROM output; computer-generated images and sound; film; music; sound effects; sound tracks; transparencies; videos. CD Audio-visual sales aids In-store merchandising, Sales presentations Techniques and equipment used by retailers and sales personnel for demonstrating products and services. In-store sales aids usually comprise stand-alone video units, demonstrating products on sale in the store, using endless video loops. This enables 33
Slide 41: AUDIT BUREAU OF CIRCULATIONS the demos to run non-stop throughout the day. A/V sales aids also enable sales departments to demonstrate products and services at remote locations. In the case of fork-lift trucks and other heavy equipment, it may be uneconomical, undesirable or impossible to take the equipment to the potential customer. It would be more practical for sales staff to take a video and use it to demonstrate the product; or have the video delivered ahead of a sales call. Media research and planning Audit Bureau of Circulations An independent organization dedicated to auditing the circulation figures of newspapers and magazines. The figures issued by the bureau accurately represent the number of copies actually sold. It also monitors exhibition attendance. The certificates of circulation issued by the bureau are trusted by media owners, advertisers and agencies, and used as a true basis for comparison among media competing for advertising money. Circulation should not be confused with readership. The ABC was founded in 1931 as a non-profit organization, by the forerunner of the Incorporated Society of British Advertisers (ISBA) (qv). This was done in response to concern shown by advertisers and publishers about false representations and claims made by some unscrupulous publishers. Since then, the publicity industry has recognized the ABC as the UK’s only independent system for confirming the circulation credibility of the press. The ABC claims to be the country’s only independent system for the validation of circulation and exhibition attendance data. It ensures that its members’ figures are accurate, objective and comparable. In this way, it helps media owners and buyers in the effective selling and buying of advertising space. Today, the ABC is run by a full-time staff, governed by a general council of permanent and elected members, representing advertisers, agencies and publishers. The ABC Council has 28 seats. The five permanent representatives comprise the chief executives of the Institute of Practitioners in Advertising, the ISBA, the Periodical Proprietors’ Association, the Newspaper Society and the Newspaper Publishers’ Association. The remaining seats are split between representatives of media-owner and media-buyer member companies, elected every two years. ABC’s staff include inspectors and auditors, responsible for certifying audit returns. They visit publishers’ offices to check that the audit rules and procedures are adhered to, and to provide circulation advice to existing and potential members. The ABC has three main divisions: the Consumer Press Division, the Businessto-Business Press Division and Verified Free Distribution (VFD). The ABC’s Consumer Press Division administers national newspapers, paid-for regional newspapers, consumer magazines and specialist journals, international and world regional newspapers. The Business-to-Business Division administers business magazines, annual publications and directories; and exhibitions, for which the validation of audited attendance is carried out. See Circulation, Controlled circulation, Penetration, Profile, Rate card, Reader, Readership, Television rating points, Verified Free Distribution. 34
Slide 42: AWARENESS Augmentation Marketing planning Adding extra features or benefits to a product or service, which do not actually form part of the product itself, to increase its appeal or attractiveness. Such measures include after-sales service, guarantees and warranties, free installation and online support. Autocue Conferences, Presentations, Television A prompting system used by presenters and speakers. On a public platform, this comprises two small transparent glass or plastic screens either side of the speaker. The speaker’s text is projected on both screens simultaneously, a few lines at a time, and invisible to the audience. The text is scrolled up by an operator out of sight of the audience. This enables the speaker to read and voice the speech without constantly resorting to notes on the lectern. The speaker can turn to right and left, seemingly looking at the audience, but actually looking at the autocue. In television studios, the autocue is a monitor screen mounted on the camera dolly next to the camera in front of the presenter. The text is displayed a few lines at a time, and scrolled up at the presenter’s speaking pace. Availability Media planning Where advertising space in a newspaper or magazine is free for booking into, it is said to be available. The same applies to advertising slots in broadcasting airtime. The dates and times of publication and transmission need to be specified. Average cost pricing Marketing planning A procedure for calculating the average cost of a product or service, based on its price across the whole product range. Average frequency Media planning A technique for calculating the average number of opportunities for audience viewing of a television commercial, or radio listening audience. This is based on the gross cumulative audience divided by the net cumulative; or, gross reach over net reach. In radio audience research, weekly reach is defined as the number in thousands, or as a percentage, of the UK/area adult population who listen to a station for at least five minutes in the course of an average week. Average issue readership Media planning A technique for calculating the number of people who read an average issue of a publication. Circulation is based on an entirely different system. See ABC. Awareness Marketing communications techniques A prerequisite for establishing brands and other concepts in a marketplace. Advertising, sales promotion and public relations techniques are used for placing a brand or corporate name in the minds of appropriate target audiences. Research 35
Slide 43: AWARENESS is used to measure the effectiveness of such campaigns; sales or enquiry figures show similar results, based, as always, on the objectives. As an example, First Direct launched its UK home banking services with a substantial advertising campaign. Awareness in its target markets went from 0 per cent to 37 per cent in the first five days, and to 58 per cent after four months. 36
Slide 44: Bb B2B Advertising, Marketing, Public relations, Sales promotion Advertising and editorial jargon for business-to-business (qv). BACC The Broadcast Advertising Clearance Centre in London. Television advertising Backbone Print Also termed a spine. The back of a bound publication connecting the two covers. Back checks Research quality control A routine for following up research interviews, so that the extent to which instructions have been followed can be evaluated. Back cover Advertising, Media buying The final page of a newspaper or magazine. These pages almost always cost more than the inside pages of the same publication. This is based on the school of thought which states that readers give more attention to the back cover than other pages. However, another school states that a magazine can as easily fall face up as face down. Publications also usually charge higher rates for inside front and back covers. You will, of course, be well advised to find independent research on the subject, or conduct your own, before investing your company’s money on cover advertising. Background Marketing brief Information about a company, organization, product, service or individual, which helps those being briefed to understand the current situation. This is one of the building blocks of efficient marketing campaign planning effort, and part of the evaluation routine summarized by the mantra: Where are we now? How did we get here? Where do we want to be? How do we get there? Background Advertising campaigns Elements of an advertising or brochure layout taking a subsidiary role in its visual presentation. These can be colour, white space, tints or textures. Their function is 37
Slide 45: BACKING TRACK to highlight the important elements in the layout, especially those that need to seize attention and encourage action. In television commercials, backgrounds include images, colour, sound effects and music. In radio commercials, backing tracks, music and sound effects. Caveat: in radio commercials, sometimes the high audio volume of the music and sound effects can destroy the advertising message. Unfortunately, this has become a popular technique. Production teams seem not to realize that not every listener possesses expensive hi-fi equipment. Many ordinary listeners listen routinely to what marketing guru Martyn P Davis calls ‘grotty little trannies’ – cheap little radios. This is yet another case for insisting that art and production personnel undergo marketing training before being briefed to create advertising and public relations material. Backing track Music, Radio, Television, Video Background sounds accompanying audio-visual presentations. These include harmonies, orchestral and instrumental effects, singers and sound effects. Backing up Printing the reverse side of a sheet already printed on one side. Print Back lining Print A paper or fabric lining stuck to the backbone or spine of a publication such as a booklet or book. This helps to stiffen the cover, giving it a more substantial feel, and greater durability. Back matter Print Pages following the main text of a printed document, containing appendix, glossary, index and other reference material. Back projection Cinema and television commercials A technique in which live action may be shot, with a moving background taken separately. For example, a car with its occupants in conversation, seen apparently travelling along a road. In fact, the car is stationary in the studio, with a film projected on to a translucent screen behind or at the side of them. The whole setup is shot simultaneously, giving the illusion of a moving car seen from the inside. Back-up Computing, Desktop publishing, Information technology Data or work done on a computer, copied to external or auxiliary storage. This can be retrieved if the original is lost, damaged or corrupted. Composition, Copywriting, Desktop publishing, Typesetting, Typography Starting a typeset page with a widow (qv), or ending a paragraph with one. Bad debt Business A customer who defaults on the settlement of an invoice. Also used to describe a company that goes out of business with unsettled debts. In financial accounting, 38 Bad break
Slide 46: BANNER money lost in this way is described as a bad debt, which will eventually be ‘written off’ – completely abandoned. Advertising design, Art, Creative, Desktop publishing, Typography The relationship between elements in a layout. Balance aims at achieving a comfortable relationship between copy, graphics, illustrations and photographs. Balance is also applied to the overall look of a printed page. You can usually see when a layout is unbalanced. Sometimes, a reader may not easily see why it is unbalanced, and the effect may be disturbing. If you are aiming for this reaction, all well and good; but deterrence is not what advertisers usually want in pursuing a sale. Balanced scorecard Business, Marketing planning A technique for achieving continuing business success, created by Dr David Norton, President of Renaissance Worldwide, and colleagues. It helps organizations to translate business strategy and vision into operational objectives, measures and strategy. The technique is designed to align all an organization’s resources and energies, by ensuring that every single individual, department and team see a direct link between what they do and overall corporate goals. Balloon Artwork, Desktop publishing, Typography The area containing speech in a newspaper or magazine cartoon. Sometimes used to good promotional effect in printed literature. Banded pack Packaging, Retailing Two products physically banded together and offered at a single price; normally less than the price of two individual items when bought separately. This is usually promoted in-store, in advertising and print as a special offer. Bangtail Advertising, Marketing, Print A type of wallet envelope, incorporating an additional, perforated flap extending from its normal flap or its back panel. The flap usually features a special offer, which can be accessed by tearing it off, filling in personal details and posting it back to the advertiser. This technique is often used by credit card companies. Paper Bank A range of lightweight papers usually used for stationery, office copiers and computer printers. The substance of such papers is usually below 60 grams per square metre (60 g/m2 or gsm). Heavier substance papers, above 60 g/m2, generally used for letterheads and correspondence, are known as bond (qv). Banner Artwork, Desktop publishing, Editorial, Typography A main headline. In newspaper and magazine publishing, the term banner headline means one running across the full page width, or most of its width. The term is also used in brochure design. 39 Balance
Slide 47: BANNER Banner Internet advertising, Web site design A brief message or advertisement inserted into a Web page, linked to the advertiser’s own Web site. Television audience research BARB Acronym for the Broadcasters Audience Research Board. The Board commissions research into audience ratings for independent television and the BBC. BARB’s purpose is to provide ratings, forming an acceptable basis for comparison for buyers and sellers of television advertising. Advertising agencies and TV contractors negotiate on the basis of these ratings. BARB also provides much other data, but for advertising agencies and TV contractors, this particular basis cannot be obtained by any other means. The current basis is consolidated ratings – the live audience viewing a programme, plus those who record a programme and view it within seven days. For the television contractors, it is important to see how well their transmission schedules are doing, in comparison with the BBC. The BBC uses the information for the same purpose. It also gives the programme-makers an indication of how well a production is doing. It may also suggest a good time to screen a particular programme. BARB was set up in 1980 by the BBC and ITCA (now ITVA), and began operations in August 1981. Its function was to provide a single system for TV audience research in the UK. The ITV audience research system was operated by JICTAR – the Joint Industry Committee for Television Advertising Research (since superseded by BARB). The system consisted of electronic meters attached to the televisions of a representative sample of viewing audience. The meters recorded when the televisions were switched on and off, and which channels were being viewed. Every week, each householder had to remove from the meter the tape that carried the information, and post it to the researchers. In addition, a questionnaire had to be completed by the householder. This indicated the number of people viewing each programme. This was posted to the researchers week by week. The system was not always reliable, since it depended on complete and consistent questionnaires. The BBC used a daily survey to obtain recall of programmes viewed the previous day. From this survey, the size and make-up of the audience to each programme was calculated. JICTAR was concerned with minute-by-minute viewing, because of the need to know how many people were watching commercials. The IBA (now called ITC, Independent Television Commission), carried out a small audience appreciation survey. The move towards a joint system was stimulated by the 1977 Annan Report on the future of broadcasting. This recommended a combined audience measurement system. This would eliminate the argument about which audience size information was correct. Resources could then be released to enable more attention to be 40
Slide 48: BAR CODE directed to research on the reactions of audiences to the content of programmes. The BBC and ITCA (now ITVA) designed a system to provide a common database, to meet the needs of all interested parties, offering acceptable reliability and cost. By 1980, they had announced the formation of BARB to manage the joint research programme. Currently, the BBC and ITVA are sole and equal shareholders in BARB Ltd. The company’s board comprises representatives of both, under an independent chairman. The organization operates through a committee system. The work of BARB devolves into two areas: audience measurement and audience appreciation. A management committee and technical sub-committee control these activities. The ITV companies, the BBC and various interested parties serve on the committees. On the audience measurement committee, the IPA (Institute of Practitioners in Advertising) represents the advertising agencies. The IPA is also represented on the main board. The ISBA (Incorporated Society of British Advertisers) represents the advertisers. As users of television advertising, they have a direct interest in the way audiences are measured. For this reason, they have an equal voice with the shareholders on the committees. The ITC is represented on the audience appreciation side; it too has an equal voice with the shareholders. Channel 4, Welsh Channel 4 and the satellite broadcasters are subscribers, and represented on appropriate committees. In August 1991, a new seven-year BARB service was begun. BARB has allocated the work to two research contractors: RSMB Television Research, a joint subsidiary of Millward Brown, and RSL (Research Services Ltd). These are responsible for all survey and fieldwork, including the recruitment and operation of the audience panels. The data supply and processing contracts are operated by AGB (UK) – Audits of Great Britain – which has awesome computing and number-crunching power. It services the panel-homes. It maintains the meters, retrieves the data, edits the data supply and the data-processing output. The edited data is provided to subscribers electronically, with minimal paperwork. The amount of data supplied each time could equal a fair-sized encyclopedia if committed to paper. See IPA, ISBA, ITC, ITVA. Bar code Marketing research, Retailing A pattern of vertical lines printed on a product, pack or printed material. Its function is to identify the product precisely. The information in the bars, in the form of 13 numbers, (10 in the USA), includes the price, date of purchase, point of sale, country of origin and manufacturer. To retrieve the information, the bar code is scanned and processed by computer. Until recently, there seemed to be little compatibility among the various systems used in Europe. However, like many electronic techniques we now use in marketing, industry standards are being applied. We may have total compatibility by the end of the 21st century. 41
Slide 49: BASE-LINE Base-line Desktop publishing, Typography An invisible horizontal line on which the bases of alphabetical and some numerical characters sit. Characters g, j, p, q and y fall below the base-line. In some fonts, the figures 3, 5, 7 and 9 fall below. See Ascender, Descender. Basing-point pricing Retailing A costing system used by multiple retailers such as supermarkets. The retail price of a product is calculated to include manufacture, packaging and storage. It must also include the cost of transportation from the points of manufacture and storage to the points of sale. Each storage location is given a base price, to which a variable cost is added for transportation. This ensures that retail prices can be rendered nationally as well as regionally, if that is the retailer’s policy. Artwork, Desktop publishing, Print, Typesetting, Typography A typeset character with a blemish. This term is a relic of the days when type was set in metal. Occasionally a character emerged imperfect from the typesetting machine. Usually, this was detected only at proof stage, and the proof-reader would make appropriate marks to have the battered character replaced. Today, imperfect characters are rarer, but proof-readers still need to be vigilant. BCU Filming, Television Initials in a script, indicating a camera instruction, Big close-up. For example, a face filling the screen, ear to ear. BDMA Marketing organizations British Direct Marketing Association. An organization representing advertisers, agencies and suppliers in the direct marketing industry. Behavioural science Research A range of disciplines applied to and focusing on the behaviour of humans. This is usually studied from the point of view of economics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, geography and history. Each discipline varies in the way it studies human behaviour, the aspects of behaviour with which it is concerned and the concepts it uses. Moreover, their units of analysis are different. They are, however, not totally mutually exclusive. As knowledge within the disciplines increases, areas of overlap are more evident. This is of immense value to marketing business, especially where the various study disciplines contribute to each other’s findings. Behaviour segmentation Marketing planning A technique for grouping consumers based on their relationship to the product being marketed. As examples: their knowledge or understanding of the product, their reasons for buying it, and the rate at which they use it. Battered type 42
Slide 50: BENCHMARKING Below the line Marketing jargon A metaphorical, invisible, horizontal line dividing various marketing communications media. By convention, those media granting commission to advertising agencies are above the line; the rest are below it. Above the line: cinema outdoor press radio television The line: Below the line: advertising gifts body media (T-shirts, hats etc) direct mail exhibitions mini media packaging point-of-sale material print public relations retail display and merchandising sales promotion sponsorship Benchmarking Business, Customer relationship management, Research A standard of performance, quality or excellence against which all similar activity is judged, evaluated and measured. This was a key management concept of the late 1990s, and continues to be discussed and developed. For example, for an increasing number of organizations it is one of the key concepts of customer relationship management strategy (CRM). They invest heavily in technology to help them formulate and implement CRM strategy. While many companies are good at formulating the strategy, they find it difficult to implement. In essence, CRM combines marketing, campaign management, sales and service functions, with technology to help implement it. To fulfil the aims of its strategy effectively and efficiently, a company needs to take the comprehensive approach to CRM. However, many companies treat marketing, campaign management, sales and service as separate functions, each with its own separate pools of customer information. Consequently, under these circumstances, it is difficult, sometimes impossible, to fulfil CRM objectives and measure results. Setting up and implementing a comprehensive benchmarking system helps to overcome this difficulty. It also lets a company know how well it is doing in relation to its direct competitors and others within its industry. 43
Slide 51: BEST BEFORE Best before Date coding, Packaging, Product management, Retailing A phrase printed on a product pack, followed by a date. In current practice, this form of date coding indicates the time limit by which the contents should be sold. However, it is a source of confusion. In theory, date coding is a measure designed to ensure that the customer receives the product in a reasonably fresh condition, or at least in good condition. In practice, it covers the producer and retailer against accusations of negligence. ‘Use by’ is another date code used in retail packaging. In reality, products sold in packs can often be safely used months or even years after the ‘best before’ date. Sometimes, packs bear the phrase ‘Display until’ followed by a date. This indicates more clearly what is meant – that the retailer should display the product on his shelves until the date shown, after which it should be removed. Moreover, some packs bear both ‘Best before’ and ‘Display until’ One UK national retailing chain currently throws into even greater confusion the system just described. Its customer care department states that ‘Best before’ means that the contents of the pack should be used or eaten before the date shown. This means that the responsibility is on the customer rather than the retailer. This entire scenario is not only confusing to the purchaser, but sloppy retailing and marketing practice. Until there is an industry standard for this type of chaotic labelling, confusion will continue. See Use by. Bias Marketing research, Statistics In statistical practice, errors arising as a result of the use of unrepresentative samples. Also applies to the way the sampling is handled by the company doing the research. Bid price Business transactions, Stock market The price a customer is prepared to pay for a product, service or company shares. Bill Business, Outdoor advertising In popular use, another term for an invoice, but not normally used in UK business practice. Usually also used in restaurants, except in the USA and countries under US influence, where the term check is used. Sometimes erroneously used instead of billboard (qv). Billboard Outdoor advertising A US term for a poster, now rather unnecessarily being adopted in Europe. In the UK, properly used, billboard should refer to very large posters. Billing Advertising agency practice Originally used to denote the gross value of an agency’s media purchases. Now more often used to express the total value of an agency’s business. Confusion can be avoided by asking for the precise definition of the term when discussing the topic. 44
Slide 52: .BIZ Bi-metal plate Print, Production A technique used in litho print production. A plate used for long print runs, in which the printing image base is copper or brass, and the non-printing area aluminium, stainless steel or chromium. Bin Retailing In a retail outlet, a container for displaying products, usually specially discounted offers or loss leaders (qv). Sometimes called a dump-bin. Sited at the end of a supermarket gondola, or in an aisle, a bin is designed to encourage shoppers to pick up a product in passing. Binding Print finishing Techniques for joining pages of newspapers, magazines, brochures and books, carried out in the finishing department. Materials used in binding include glue, stitching, staples, board, plastics and fabrics. Bingo card Magazine and directory publishing Also called a reader enquiry card. An enquiry card inserted or bound into a publication, which makes it easy for readers to send for information. It displays a matrix of key numbers or letters, which match those in the editorial or advertising pages of the publication. The return postage on the card is usually pre-paid by the publisher. Many publishers do not offer this free facility to readers, on the grounds that if the readers want the information badly enough, they will pay the postage. Bit Computing, Information technology In computer jargon, the smallest unit of electronic information. A contraction of BInary digiT. See Byte. Bit-mapping Computing, Information technology In computer typesetting, the characters and their shapes are stored digitally as ‘dots’ in the computer’s memory. When retrieved from the computer’s bit-map for printing, they are reproduced as dots. .biz E-commerce, Internet activity A top-level domain name for business. Strictly speaking, .biz domain names are only for those intending to use their domain names for ‘bona fide business or commercial use’. The registry for .biz defines this as: The bona fide use or bona fide intent to use the domain name or any content, software, materials, graphics or other information thereon, to permit Internet users to access one or more host computers through the domain name server: 1. to exchange goods, services or property of any kind; 2. in the ordinary course of trade or business; or, 3. to facilitate 1 or 2 above. 45
Slide 53: BLACK The registry for .biz has explicitly excluded from the definition those using or intending to use the domain exclusively for personal, non-commercial purposes, or exclusively for the expression of non-commercial ideas, eg trademarksarerubbish.biz. Domain name speculation is also explicitly excluded from the definition. Black Print The colour used with the subtractive primaries yellow, magenta and cyan in fourcolour printing. Its main function is to give depth to the other colours, and provide degrees of light, shade and emphasis. See all these, and Process colours. Television, Video Black When the screen is showing neither pictures nor ‘snow’ it is said to be showing ‘black’. In post-production jargon, ‘Going to black’ means inserting a section of black in the tape. Most commercially produced videos, training videos for example, start with about 20 seconds of black. Black and white Artwork, Print Originals or reproductions in black only, as distinct from multicolour. Usually abbreviated to B&W. However, see the various caveats on abbreviations and initials elsewhere in this dictionary. Black economy Business A covert economic system, operated by individuals and organizations for the main purpose of evading tax. This usually involves trading for cash, or by barter or other cashless method; often the employment of casual labour paid for in cash. Some of these activities are inherently criminal, as well as flouting taxation, Customs & Excise and employment law. Print Black printer A black printing plate, used in colour reproduction for increasing the contrast of neutral tones and detail. Blade coated Paper Paper coated by a process in which a freshly applied wet coating is smoothed, and the excess removed, by a thin, flexible metal blade. This produces an excellent surface suitable for high quality printing. Blank Artwork, Film and television animation In animation, a cell without a drawing. This device is used to keep the number of cell layers constant during a sequence of animation photography. Blanket Print A rubber-coated roller used on offset litho and some flexographic presses. This to prevent undue wear on the printing plate, paper being abrasive. The blanket takes 46
Slide 54: BLINK TESTING up the image from the printing plate and transfers it to the paper or other surface to be printed. There is no contact between printing plate and paper. See Dry offset, Litho, Offset. Advertising Blanket coverage Advertising, with the objective of getting as much coverage as possible, and without a pre-determined target audience. This is a useful technique where a target audience is unknown, or cannot be defined precisely. Many advertisers reduce the expense, and the risk of wastage, by using small advertisements, often carrying a key code (qv). Blanket to blanket Print An offset litho printing press in which two blanket cylinders act as opposing impression cylinders. This allows both sides of a web or sheet to be printed simultaneously – a technique termed perfecting. Bleed Artwork, Creative, Print, Production An illustration that prints beyond the trim edge of the paper. This brings the image right to the edge after trimming; no margin is visible. Blind advertisement Advertising An advertisement in which the name of the advertiser is missing. If the advertiser chooses to remain anonymous, as in much recruitment advertising, the agency or recruitment specialist will feature its own name instead, or use a box number. Blind embossing Print, Production An image raised up on paper or board above the common surface, but not printed. In embossing technique, the paper is pushed up from the back, by a die or other mechanical device, to create an image. See Die stamping, Embossing, Relief printing, Thermography. Blind image Print In litho printing, an image that has lost its ink receptivity, and fails to print adequately or at all. Blind product testing Marketing research, Product research Testing various aspects, benefits or features of a product without revealing its name to the respondents. Blink testing Marketing research, Retail research Tests on consumers involving the counting of the number of times they blink in a specified time. The tests are designed to reveal the level of concentration, arousal, interest or apathy in certain pre-determined circumstances. First used in the USA to gauge the level of concentration and interest of shoppers in supermarkets to products displayed on shelves. It was found that shoppers’ blink-rates usually went 47
Slide 55: BLISTER PACK down while they were cruising along the aisles. The rate usually rose sharply when approaching or standing at the checkouts. Blister pack Packaging, Point-of-sale display, Retailing A product mounted on board, with transparent plastic shrunk tightly on to it. The blister effect not only protects the product from damage when the pack is handled; it helps to display the product to good effect. Block Computing, Desktop publishing, Word-processing A group of characters or words treated as a single unit. Letterpress printing, Process engraving Block An illustration, line or tone, etched into a metal or plastic plate. Once created in this way, plates can be moulded or cast in metal or plastic, or reproduced electrolytically. Blocks are usually mounted on wood or plastic, to bring them up to type height for printing. This technology is now little used in Europe, because of the cumbersomeness of the materials involved and the continuing popularity of litho printing. It is still used in less technologically driven countries. Blocking out See Masking. Artwork, Plate-making, Production Blow-up An enlargement of a photo negative or photoprint. Artwork, Photography Blueprint Print, Production A photoprint made from stripped-up negatives or positives. This is used as a proof to check the position of image elements. The technique is frequently used in litho printing and photo-engraving. Board Paper, Paper-making, Print Material used in printing and packaging, heavier and stiffer than paper and in various weights or thicknesses. The substance at which paper becomes board varies greatly among manufacturers. It can vary from as low as 180 g/m² to as high as 250 g/m². Board is extensively used for brochure covers, as well as for packaging. Body Print A term used in ink technology, describing the viscosity or consistency of an ink. An ink with too much body, for example, is too stiff. Body copy Copywriting, Desktop publishing, Typography, Word-processing The small type text of an advertisement, brochure, leaflet or editorial. Most advertisement body copy, and that for printed literature, is set in sizes under 12pt. Copy over 12pt, usually headlines, is referred to as display copy. 48
Slide 56: BOOKLET Bodyline capacity The number of lines on a page to be printed. Typesetting, Typography Body type Copywriting, Desktop publishing, Typography, Word-processing Printing type smaller than 12pt. Also termed text type. Body type is used for the main part of a piece of copy, as distinct from its heading. BOGOFF Retailing, Sales promotion A slightly vulgar, but effective acronym for Buy One Get One For Free. A measure undertaken by marketers and retailers for increasing the sales of a product for a limited period. Also expressed as BOGOF and B1G1F. Boiler-plate Copywriting, Desktop publishing, Direct mail A piece of copy stored as a standard unit. Different parts of this can be rearranged and combined with new copy to produce new documents, such as personalized direct mail letters. Compare this term with template and macro. Desktop publishing, Typography, Word-processing Bold Also termed boldface. Heavier versions of regular type, with thicker strokes and curves. Bold is usually used for headings and sub-headings, and for emphasis in body copy. Also termed heavy. Bond Paper, Print A range of high quality paper generally used for letterheads, correspondence and expensive-looking mailshots. The substance of such papers is usually over 60 grams per square metre (60 g/m2 or gsm). Lighter substance papers, below 60 g/m2, used for copying and computer printing, are known as bank (qv). Bonding Print, Production Another term for gluing, where two materials are joined together permanently, usually by an adhesive. Bonding Business, Exporting, Importing The warehousing, under Customs & Excise guard, of imported goods, which have yet to have duty paid on them. They are held until the duty is paid, or the goods re-exported. Bonus pack Retailing A product pack at the point of sale, containing more than the normal quantity of product but sold at the normal price. This is always promoted on the pack, usually as an advertisement display. Booklet Advertising, Creative, Print A piece of promotional print designed and bound in the form of a book. The term is usually applied to such a format of 24 pages or more. Below that number of pages, it is usually termed a brochure. 49
Slide 57: BOOK TOKEN Book token Retailing A gift coupon or voucher, paid for by a customer at the point of sale. This can be exchanged by the recipient for a book having the same value. It can also be used as part-payment for a book, the rest made up in cash or by credit, debit or store card. Tokens can be obtained also for other merchandise, such as clothes, and for holidays and fitness centre activity. Accounting, Business Book value The value of a company asset as recorded in the company’s accounts. This is often different from its market value. Boom Film and television, Photography A trolley-mounted jib, at the end of which is a microphone. Its design and mechanism allows it to be moved about silently, following the actors during a take. The boom operator is referred to as the boom swinger. Booth Another term for an exhibition stand or shell. Advertising, Exhibitions Booting up Computing, Information technology Starting up a computer, during which operating software is automatically loaded from the computer’s hard disk. Most computers do this internally when being switched on. Nowadays, few if any computers are routinely booted from floppy disks. In the event of a ‘crash’ or a ‘freeze’, a computer can use rescue disks, prepared in advance. Design, Artwork, Desktop publishing, Print, Production, Typography A simple or complex rule, or a decorated one, positioned round type and illustrated matter on a printed page. Boston Matrix Marketing planning, Product portfolio planning A tool for evaluating a company’s product portfolio, devised by the Boston Consulting Group. The technique is expressed as a diagram in the form of a box with four compartments – a four-cell matrix. Each compartment shows the progress of a product in its life cycle, and its contribution to the health and profitability of the portfolio as a whole. It enables marketing and product management teams to assess the performance of products, their likely potential, and their destiny. It provides an insight into the relative importance of individual products in the portfolio. It also offers a view of the problems and opportunities likely to be encountered, and clues for the organization’s policy for future investment and divestment. The usefulness of the matrix can be expressed as follows. In high-growth markets, there are usually opportunities for all the contenders to gain market share. On the other hand, in markets where growth is low, the only way to increase market Border 50
Slide 58: BOSTON MATRIX share is by seducing customers away from the competition. In view of this, the matrix helps to indicate the direction in which the company should be approaching business threats and opportunities, and the allocation of its resources to meet them. Marketing and product teams use such fairly simple, linear concepts as aids to decision-making. A product portfolio involves a balance of products and services, opportunities and risks. Naturally, they also take into account such vital business considerations as return on investment, individual and overall profitability. An explanation of the terms used in the Matrix: n Problem child – a product with high growth, low market share. Prospects are good, but possibly under-performing. May need high investment to reach its full profit potential; this could be a drain on the portfolio. High Star Problem child Market growth Low Cash cow Dog High Low Relative market THE BOSTON MATRIX In ideal product portfolio management, the aim is to use cash surpluses generated by cash cows for investment in the rising stars, and in selected problem children. Dogs are thrown out when no 51
Slide 59: BOUNCE FLASH n Star – product with high growth, high market share. May need high levels of funding. n Cash cow – product with low growth, high market share. Could be the main source of funds for the problem children and stars in the portfolio. n Dog – a low growth, low market share product. Dubious performance. May qualify for removal from the portfolio. Bounce flash Photography, Reprographics Electronic flash, reflected from a surface before it reaches the subject. This gives a soft, even light, with minimal shadow. Boutique Marketing communications services An advertising services company offering a particular speciality, rather than a full range of services. For example, creative services without media planning and buying. Companies offering specialist media planning and buying services only, and not creative or production, are known as media independents (qv). Advertising, Artwork, Desktop publishing, Print, Typography, Word-processing A rule border round a piece of copy, isolating it from other matter on a printed page. Bracketing Photography, Reprographics A technique for ensuring correct exposure when conditions are difficult. It comprises taking shots at twice and half the indicated exposure. BRAD Advertising, Media, Media buying British Rate and Data: a monthly media directory compendium giving advertising rates, circulation figures and mechanical data for British print and broadcast media, plus cinema and e-zines. The directory is published by EMAP Communications; www.intellagencia.com. The publisher’s BRADbase service offers this data online to subscribers. European counterparts include Tarif Media in France and Media Daten in Germany. In the USA, the counterpart is SRDS, the Standard Rate and Data Service. Brand Advertising, Marketing, Marketing communications Defined simply and narrowly, the proprietary name of a product, along with the personality and visual identity given to it by its creator and owner. Brand awareness Brand management, Marketing, Marketing research The percentage or proportion of consumers who, in a research operation, recognize a particular brand. Branded products Marketing, Retailing Products marketed and offered for sale under a proprietary rather than a generic name. In developed countries such as in Europe and the USA, such products are 52 Box
Slide 60: BRANDING safeguarded by legislation against pirating and passing off (qv). Pursuing pirates in the courts is another matter, which may be both costly and long drawn-out. Brand equity Marketing planning, Product planning The values, assets, properties and perceptions of a product, service or idea, assigned to it and promoted by its creator. This term also applies to the responsibilities and liabilities linked to the brand. Many brand operators state that this embraces such elements as the awareness of its name in the marketplace, customer loyalty to the brand, its perceived quality, its logos and trademarks. Others extend this to the ability of the brand to differentiate itself from its competitors. It can also include the corporate identity and image of its owner’s organization. Brand image Brand management, Creative, Media, Marketing, Marketing research Generally speaking, this expresses the total personality of a company or product. It is this, rather than any trivial technical differences, which determines a product’s position in the market. Brand identity is concerned with how a company presents the brand to its market. Brand image is how that market perceives the brand identity. See Branding, Positioning. Branding Creative, Media, Marketing, Marketing planning, Marketing research The use of techniques by which a company, organization or product distinguishes itself from others. This is how it expresses its identity and function in its markets. In current marketing thinking, branding is the process of identifying and differentiating a product or service, and establishing its uniqueness. In practice, it is much more than that. Branding is part of the process of being sensitive to how customers perceive your product or company. You use branding to send signals to customers at whom you have aimed the product, and who will benefit from possessing or using it. Branding operations provide the following advantages: n The product is more easily remembered and identified. n It provides strong links between advertising and other forms of promotion; for example, public relations, sales promotion, sponsorship and packaging. n It provides a bridge between the different media, such as press, television, radio and created media; and between campaigns. n A brand has promotional value. Customer benefits can be associated with it. n New products can be introduced more easily under a well-established, respected brand name. This applies equally to existing markets as to new ones. Heinz, Coke, Cadbury and Canon are obvious examples n Heinz doesn’t have to start from the beginning and introduce itself when launching a new packaged product. Canon operates in several different 53
Slide 61: BRAND LEADER markets, such as televisions and video recorders, cameras and office copiers. The brand name helps to bridge the gap. n A manufacturer in one sector of the market can enter another sector with a different brand. Virgin, for example, now operates an airline, a railway and a pensions and investment company. n Branding and positioning affect the messages aimed at existing and potential customers. n UK supermarket chains such as Sainsbury, Safeway and Tesco offer their own labels at lower prices. This is in direct competition with the established brands they stock. The aim is to divert customer attention from the major brands into the retailers’ own, without seriously affecting sales of the established brands. The essential elements of successful branding: n differentiation; n identity; n uniqueness. Differentiation Making absolutely clear the distinction between one’s own product and all others. Identity The establishment, firmly and unambiguously, of the identity of the product, service, idea or company, and its distinct personality. Uniqueness In advertising, public relations, sales promotion and packaging, the taking of a strong position with statements only you can make about your product, service or company and statements no competitor can say, or dares say, or bothers to say, about theirs. Clear, unambiguous branding offers a number of advantages: n n n n It establishes your identity and that of your product. It establishes, and can enhance, your reputation for high quality. It establishes and demonstrates a responsible attitude towards your market. It encourages lasting memorability in your company’s markets, and elsewhere. Brand leader Marketing, Product management An organization, brand or product holding the highest individual share within a market. Brand loyalty Creative, Media, Marketing, Research Allegiance by customers to a particular brand. This varies a great deal, and can be complicated by swings of buying patterns by brand-loyal groups. Research, particularly rolling research, can determine the fads, fancies and swings, so that 54
Slide 62: BRAND PROPERTY marketers can decide on their marketing and advertising investment programmes with minimum risk. Consumer loyalty to a particular product or service can be fickle. According to a Royal Mail advertisement in 1999, it costs six times more to get a new customer than it does to maintain an existing one. It follows that the marketer’s aim should be to establish such a good relationship with customers that they stay loyal to his product. This brand loyalty is a valuable corporate asset, and should be pursued over a long term. Brand loyalty, and the marketing appeals made to achieve it, can be emotional, or based on physical advantages such as taste, price or design. Marketing, Product management Brand manager Also termed product manager. A manager or executive responsible for the conduct of a product or brand in its markets. Duties include everything from the translation and implementation of the initial marketing brief for the brand, to the day-to-day running of the team handling brand affairs; from packaging to the pursuit of profitability objectives and plans for future development. Close liaison with other managers and departments is usually required; especially sales. Brand personality Marketing, Product management The creation and maintenance of qualities and attributes that give a product or brand its identity, uniqueness and differentiation. It is the ‘badge’ by which consumers recognize the brand, and often those that help them towards buying decisions. High-quality, excellent value for money, fashionable styling, international availability, good after-sales service and support are some elements of brand personality. Brand positioning Marketing, Product management The creation, maintenance and development of the concept of a brand, in the minds of its customers, vis-à-vis that of its competitors. Some motor vehicle brands, for example, may be perceived as good value for money. Others may be seen as expensive, have never been anything else, and are never likely to be. Individual brands of margarine, virtually identical in composition, can be perceived by positioning in different ways: slimming, health-promoting, ideal for baking, convenient because easy to spread, indistinguishable from butter, and so on. Brand property Advertising, Brand management Images, sounds, slogans, colours and other physical elements designed to carry a brand’s imagery over from one advertising medium to another, one campaign to the next. The IBM logo is always blue, whatever the visual medium; hence the company has acquired the nickname Big Blue. Duracell batteries are coppercoloured, and the visuals are accompanied in television commercials by a distinctive sound effect. In its radio advertising, the sound effect is used so that it represents, and is linked to, the visual imagery of the television commercials and full-colour press advertisements. Music from the opera Lakmé is closely linked to British Airways, and may be considered its brand property. 55
Slide 63: BRAND RECOGNITION Brand recognition Advertising, Marketing planning, Sales promotion The ability of a brand to achieve, in its markets, the level of pre-planned recognition and awareness. Advertising, Marketing, Sales promotion Brand reinforcement Promotional messages channelled through a variety of media, designed to bind existing consumers even tighter and more positively to a brand. Brand share Advertising, Marketing planning Statistics, in terms of cash or sales volume, showing what percentage share a product has achieved in its markets in a given period. It should be borne in mind that sales turnover and quantity volume are not the same. Turnover is expressed as money; sales volume as units. From this it is possible to calculate the cost of a sale, and whether it is cost-effective or not. Breadth of range Product management, Product portfolio, Retailing In product portfolio management, breadth of range expresses the range of different products produced by a manufacturer. In retailing and wholesaling, it is the number and variety of different products stocked for sale in a particular store or group of stores. Break Cinema, Radio, Television A pause during news and entertainment programming, in which advertising is inserted. Usually termed a commercial break. Usually, but not always, at a natural break point in the programming. Breakdown Business planning, Marketing planning Separation of the individual elements in a business, marketing, marketing communications or other plan, showing individual costs, timings, projected sales and profits, and so on. Breakdown Cinema and television commercials A schedule used in the filming of entertainment and commercials, prepared by an assistant director. It shows actors, sets, props and other items for each scene. It also indicates whether the shot is to simulate day or night, interior or exterior. It is essential to have a comprehensive breakdown available in the hands of all concerned in the shooting of a commercial, if only so that nothing is forgotten on the day. This is particularly important when a production extends to two or three days. Sending a messenger across town for a forgotten light bulb costs a fortune in lost production time. Break-even Business, Marketing planning The point in a planned enterprise or campaign, at which investment or expenditure in the project and the income gained from it are equal. Simply stated, the point at which the project becomes commercial viable. Traditionally, the time-frame 56
Slide 64: BRITISH CODES OF ADVERTISING AND SALES PROMOTION allocated for this process was in the region of five years. More recently, the timeframe allowed has become shorter and shorter; it is now 18 months or less. Under this kind of regime, a product may be abandoned if turnover and profits do not rise rapidly from the start. Marketers often look for ultra-quick profits, rather than long-term prosperity, however bad this may be for the consuming public. Break-even analysis Business, Marketing planning A technique designed to evaluate the performance of a product in its markets, and to calculate the relationship between revenue and costs. From this it should be possible to decide on the viability of a product, and its future in a company’s product portfolio. Artwork, Print, Production Break for colour In artwork and composition for print, a technique for separating the elements to be printed in different colours. Brief Marketing, Marketing communications A set of instructions for the preparation and implementation of a marketing campaign or project. Ideally they should be complete with background, research findings, objectives, statistics, costs and campaign execution details. Brightness Photography, Reprographics Light reflected by the subject to be photographed. Brightness The brilliance or reflectance of a paper. Paper, Print British Codes of Advertising and Sales Promotion Advertising controls A compendium of rules by which the British advertising industry has agreed that the majority of advertisements it produces should be regulated. It is under the general supervision of the Advertising Standards Authority. Radio and television advertisements are not covered by this code. They are covered by similar codes operated by the Radio Authority (qv) and the Independent Television Commission (qv). The BCASP establishes a standard against which advertisements and sales promotion may be assessed. It is a guide to those concerned with commissioning, creating and publishing advertisements and sales promotion activities. It is also available to those who believe they may have reason to question what an advertisement says or shows. In this capacity, it helps to protect the public against misleading and offensive advertising. The Committee for Advertising Practice is the self-regulatory body that devises and enforces the Codes. CAP’s members include organizations that represent the advertising, sales promotion and media businesses: Advertising Association Association of Household Distributors 57
Slide 65: BRITISH COUNCIL Association of Media and Communications Specialists Broadcast Advertising Clearance Centre Cinema Advertising Association Council of Outdoor Specialists Direct Mail Services Standards Board Direct Marketing Association (UK) Direct Selling Association Incorporated Society of British Advertisers Institute of Practitioners in Advertising Institute of Sales Promotion Mail Order Traders’ Association Mailing Preference Service Newspaper Publishers’ Association Newspaper Society Outdoor Advertising Association Periodical Publishers’ Association Proprietary Association of Great Britain Royal Mail Scottish Daily Newspaper Society Scottish Newspaper Publishers’ Association In the opening pages of a previous version of the Codes, the Committee outlined the essence of good advertising practice as follows: n All advertisements should be legal, decent, honest and truthful. n All advertisements should be prepared with a sense of responsibility both to the consumer and to society. n All advertisements should conform to the principles of fair competition generally accepted in business. No marketer can fail to support these worthwhile sentiments. British Council Government agency A government agency with responsibility for promoting the UK. Its remit includes the promotion of British products, investment possibilities, exports, trading advantages, trade missions and visits, countryside, tourism, cultural and ethical values, and other major features of British life and commerce. The service is available to British exporters and supports an international network. Broadcasting Act 1990 See CRCA, ITVA, Radio Authority. Controls Broadsheet Media, Print, Production A paper size used in newspaper and magazine printing. The trimmed page size is about 600 mm high × 380 mm wide, depending on the printing house. The Times, 58
Slide 66: BROWN GOODS Daily Telegraph and Independent are broadsheets. British daily newspapers, the Daily Express and Sun are tabloids (qv). Brochure Advertising, Creative, Print A piece of promotional print designed and bound in the form of a book. The term is usually applied to such a format up to 24 pages. Above that number of pages, it is usually termed a booklet. Brochures are often written, designed and produced with high quality in mind, so that their form and content reflect well on the organization represented in them. Broken lot Retailing, Wholesaling A quantity of goods smaller than that usually offered for sale; often when part of a larger consignment is broken up into smaller lots. This can happen when some of the original consignment is damaged in transit. Business Broker An independent individual who brings sellers and buyers together, acting as agent but not actually handling the products or services being negotiated. The essence of a broker’s trade is her independence, and the impartiality of her advice. If a broker is tied to a single supplier, and offers only that supplier’s products or services, she is called a representative. This should be made clear at the start of every transaction. It is worth noting that advertising agents are neither agents nor brokers. The term agent is a relic of the time when advertising agents were actually sales agents for publications they represented. Today, agents are principals in contracts entered into both with clients and with media. Bromide Photography, Reprographics A photoprint on silver-bromide coated paper. This technique is disappearing into photographic history, since more modern materials and techniques are now used. However, the terminology lingers on. To achieve different degrees of photographic image contrast, papers of different ‘hardness’ are still used. See Photograph. Bronzing Print, Production A technique for achieving a bronze effect in a printed item. This comprises printing first with a sizing ink, then applying bronze powder while the ink is still wet, to produce a metallic lustre. Brown goods Marketing, Retailing Marketing jargon. Certain consumer durables, usually those purchased infrequently, with high unit cost, such as domestic furniture, storage units and carpets. This term is used to distinguish them from white goods (qv). 59
Slide 67: BRUSH COATED Brush coated Paper A coated paper produced by coating a web with slip. This is distributed and smoothed by brushes, some stationary and others oscillating across the web. An excellent paper for high quality printing. B series Paper An international ISO range of sizes for paper and board, generally used for posters, wall-charts and so on. The ratio of the sides of A and B series papers is 1:√2. Sheet size B0 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 Millimetres 1,000 × 1,414 1,707 × 1,000 500 × 707 353 × 500 250 × 353 176 × 250 Product development, Quality control BSI The British Standards Institute. Bucket shop Retailing A vulgar term for an outlet offering heavily discounted products and services, such as holidays, air fares and computer peripherals. Advertising, Business, Marketing Budget Money allocated to future business or marketing operations or campaigns over a fixed time-frame. Where appropriate, this is divided into constituent parts of the operation, taking into account all future expenditure needed to fulfil the objectives. Budget Cinema and television commercials A financial breakdown of estimated costs for producing a commercial. In addition to the personnel and materials for a shoot found in the breakdown (qv), other items must appear. These include travelling time; meals per day; first aid kit; preparation costs; portable lavatories, if shooting on location. Bug Computing, Information technology An error in a computer program. Correcting errors in computer software is called de-bugging. Built-in obsolescence Business, Manufacturing, Marketing Also termed planned obsolescence. A situation in which the working life of a product is limited by forward planning at concept stage. This forces the purchaser to decide, in the course of time, whether to continue to use the product until it actually breaks down, or buy a new one. Obsolescence is usually driven along by the introduction of frequent changes in the design of the same product, or by the 60
Slide 68: BURST introduction of completely new ones at short intervals. This phenomenon can be observed in the marketing of computers, mobile telephones, televisions, videos and cars. In the case of computer software, new products are often incompatible with older computers. Bulk The substance and feel of a printing paper. Paper Bulk breaking Reselling, Retailing, Wholesaling The purchasing of bulk quantities of goods, then reselling them in smaller quantities to other buyers. Supermarkets do this with commodities such as vegetables. The wholesaler benefits from the savings to be made when buying in quantity; the retailer does the same, to a lesser or greater extent. The end-customer may hardly benefit at all. Bulk discounts Advertising, Retailing, Wholesaling Discounts offered when large quantities of a product or service are purchased. Advertising space and airtime are usually offered in this way, in the form of frequency and volume discounts (qv). Bullet Copywriting, Desktop publishing, Print, Typesetting, Typography Symbol placed in front of lines of copy, for drawing attention to the text. Symbols vary, but the most popular are small, solid discs, squares and diamonds. The use of bullets enables the writer to use extreme terseness where appropriate, without regard to the niceties of grammar and syntax. Bullets help to convey information without wasting words. For examples, see Branding. Bulletin Advertising, Publishing A publication, such as a newsletter, issued periodically, usually containing news and reviews of interest to recipients. Normally distributed by post, but increasingly now by e-mail. Bulletin board Internet communications The electronic equivalent of a message board, accessed via the Internet. Contributors leave their observations, questions, queries and answers on the board, and read and reply to those left by others. Burn Print, Production A popular term used in plate-making, particularly in the USA, for the photographic exposure of printing plates. Burst Advertising An intense advertising effort concentrated into a short time-frame. A useful technique for a product launch or relaunch. Applies to press, broadcast and direct mail advertising, particularly when all three are coordinated. 61
Slide 69: BUSINESS FORMAT FRANCHISE Business format franchise Franchising The operator of a franchise, the franchisee, virtually rents a product concept from its owner, the franchisor. A franchise in business format enables the franchisee to benefit from a complete franchise package, which might include warranties, guarantees, after-sales service arrangements, online support, product literature and access to databases. Business gift Advertising A gift from an advertiser, usually to existing and potential customers, carrying a promotional message, campaign slogan or company logo. Cheaper items are often sent through the post; more expensive ones usually handed over by salespeople during meetings with clients or prospects. Pens, diaries, keyrings and deskfurniture are common items of business giftware. Business press Advertising, Publishing Media aimed at and read by the business community. For advertising media planning purposes, publications are usually grouped in business categories. For example, the marketing-related press includes, Campaign, Marketing, Marketing Week, Media Week and PR Week (the UK), and Advertising Age (USA). Business reply service Advertising, Direct mail, Marketing A service offered by post offices in Europe, the USA and many industrialized countries. This entitles an advertiser to pay postage and handling charges on reply cards and coupons; recipients pay nothing. This marketing technique is designed to encourage enquirers and potential customers to reply to advertisements. Business-to-business Advertising, Marketing, Public relations A situation in which a manufacturer or service supplier promotes and markets to other businesses, rather than to the general public. Thus, for example, the manufacturers of car electrics, computer chips or printing inks supply components and materials for the manufacturing activities of other companies. Also, popularly referred to as B2B. Business-to-business advertising Advertising Advertising aimed at selected markets within the business community, rather than at consumers or the general public. This applies to any products or services that are purchased or used by businesses, including components, capital equipment, specialized services, and some classes of insurance and finance. Business-to-business marketing Marketing Marketing of products and services among businesses and corporations, which does not use wholesale and retail channels of distribution. Sales effort in businessto-business marketing is usually carried out by specialists, such as sales engineers and technical representatives. 62
Slide 70: BUYING SYNDICATE Bus sides Outdoor advertising Horizontal advertising space on the sides of buses, usually below or between the rows of windows. Product management Buyer readiness Consumers can be categorized in terms of how close they may be to making a decision to buy, or to an actual purchase. Stages of consumer readiness range from initial awareness, interest and decision, to action. Buyer-seller relationship Marketing planning, Product management The character and quality of the relationship between buyer and seller, in terms of their social and economic interaction. Business, Marketing Buyer’s market A negotiating position where there is more product on the market than customer capacity or ability to purchase. This situation can occur in a variety of fields of endeavour, including manufacturing, recruitment, finance, insurance, travel and academia. Buying centre Marketing planning, Product management A central unit within an organization, responsible for the purchase of commodities for the organization as a whole. A single buying centre, for example, may purchase fabrics for a clothes manufacturer or national reseller; or citrus fruits for a national supermarket chain. However, companies marketing on a regional basis may have buying centres in each region, responsible for purchases based on local demand, culture or taste. Buying classes Marketing planning In planning a marketing campaign aimed at corporations, the marketing team need to take into account customers’ buying decisions and how they are arrived at. Firsttime buying is usually a complicated process, often demanding decisions from a variety of executives; for example, chief executive, finance director, production director, personnel director and administration manager. Repeat purchasing of the same product is much easier; modified re-purchasing, where the product has changed, may call for a new sales pitch by the seller. Buying matrix Company purchasing management A simple spreadsheet-like technique to help decision-making, enabling buyers to compare products, specifications and prices. These can then be more easily matched to the company’s requirements. Buying syndicate Marketing, Retailing A group of like-minded people or businesses, collaborating to obtain the best possible terms for purchases. This technique enables small businesses, such as individual grocery outlets and other retailers, to trade on nearly the same terms as 63
Slide 71: B/W OR B&W giant supermarkets. This has been known to work well on a consumer level. Some years ago, a Japanese housewife, disgusted with the poor quality and high price of groceries in her locality, formed a small cooperative purchasing group of neighbours, friends and relatives. Although this was purely private, and not intended to go beyond a few families, it eventually expanded into a huge national discount buying syndicate. Purchasing power is always with the people, if only they would seize it. B/W or B&W Artwork, Creative, Desktop publishing, Print, Production Initials for black and white usually, but not always wisely, used in written instructions. It is prudent to spell out such instructions and descriptions, if only to avoid confusion and unnecessary expense and time-loss when initials are misunderstood. Byline Editorial, Public relations, Publishing A line in a newspaper or magazine above a report, column or feature, giving the name of the writer. It shows who the piece is ‘by’. By-product Business, Manufacturing, Marketing A secondary product or service, produced as the result of the manufacture of a primary one. Lanolin, for example, is a by-product of the wool industry, and marketed as a separate product; it is popularly used in cosmetics. Byte Computing, Information technology A group of eight bits of electronic data; a unit of digital information. See Bit. 64
Slide 72: Cc CA The Consumers’ Association (qv) in the UK. Consumer organizations Cable television Television Television transmissions distributed to consumers via cable. In the UK, a number of companies are operating cable television, and offering other services such as Internet access and telephone services. With this system, it is possible to target distinctive market segments, and individual subscribers. CAD/CAM Computer graphics, Design A combination of computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacture. This term is usually used to express graphic output, both on-screen and printed. Calender A metal roller used in paper-making. Paper, Paper-making, Print, Production Calendering Paper, Paper-making, Print, Production During paper-making, passing paper through a series of calenders to condition it for printing. The surface of the paper can be made smoother by calendering, which is cheaper than coating it. Caliper Paper The thickness of paper, usually expressed in thousands of an inch or fractions of a millimetre. Call-back Marketing research That part of a research programme in which a researcher pays a second call on a respondent, having failed to make contact during the first call. This applies to personal fieldwork and to research conducted by telephone. Call cycle Sales management The planned frequency and regularity with which a sales executive calls on clients or customers. Often this is determined by computer at the sales support office, for the sake of efficient coverage of sales territories. 65
Slide 73: CALLOUT Callout Artwork, Desktop publishing, Typography, Word-processing Depends on which software manual you are using. Usually describes a caption to an illustration, in which the copy is connected to the illustration by a thin rule. In some desktop publishing and word-processing software, callout describes a box in which copy is inserted. Often, the callout is not a box proper, but single or double rules above and below the copy. Or at the sides. Sales management Call rate The number of contacts made by a sales executive in the field, in a pre-planned time-frame. Camcorder A video camera that has a tape cassette built in. See U-Matic, VHS. Television, Video Camera-ready Artwork, Print, Production Finished artwork, ready for the process camera. All the elements are in position with a high degree of accuracy. Printing plates are then made from the film. In the case of computer-to-plate technology, the artwork image is exposed direct to printing plates. See Copy date. Campaign Marketing, Marketing communications, Planning operations A carefully and meticulously worked-out scheme aimed at fulfilling marketing objectives. This can include every stage of marketing planning and implementation, from the initial concept for a product or service, to the follow-up carried out after the close of the scheme. It can include all elements of the marketing and promotional mixes: product creation, branding, packaging, distribution, advertising, direct mail, telesales, public relations, sales promotion, e-commerce techniques, customer relationship management and after-sales service. Cancellation Media planning and buying Cancellation of media bookings. All media have deadlines by which bookings may be cancelled without penalty. The lead time varies with the individual publication. For example, with some national newspapers, the cancellation deadline can be as short as three days. With national magazines, especially those carrying full-colour advertising, cancellation dates can be a long as four months preceding publication. Sales technique Canned presentation A pre-written sales pitch used by salespeople during sales presentations. Almost always used by telesales staff when cold calling potential customers by phone. Sometimes the rigid delivery of these scripts is painfully obvious during sales calls. They are useful for training staff new to a company or a product, but post-training supervision often does not include humanizing canned presentations as the salespeople get used to them. 66
Slide 74: CAPTIVE AUDIENCE Canvass Marketing research, Sales technique To seek out, contact and interview a potential respondent or group of people. This term can apply either to research, or to selling by telephone or in the field. A person doing such work is a canvasser. Where the contact is made without prior arrangement, and uninvited by the respondent, this is termed cold canvassing. CAP Controls The Committee of Advertising Practice. The Committee responsible for the preparation, amendment and enforcement of the British Codes of Advertising and Sales Promotion (qv). See Advertising Standards Authority, British Codes of Advertising and Sales Promotion, CRCA, Independent Television Commission, ITVA, Radio Authority. Capital Business, Economics Accumulated wealth, especially where this is used for investment or manufacturing production. Also applied to the stock with which a company or person contributes or enters into a business. Creative, Desktop publishing, Typography, Word-processing Capital The capital letters in an alphabet or a type font. See Caps, Lower case, Upper case. Capital goods Business, Manufacture The popular term for equipment, machinery or plant used for the production of commodities, directed towards the consumer, industry and commerce. Caps Composition, Desktop publishing, Typesetting, Typography, Word-processing A common diminutive for capital letters. Caps and small caps are two sizes of capital letters made in one size of type, commonly used in most roman typefaces. See Capitals, Lower case, Upper case. Caption Artwork, Creative, Print Copy attached to a halftone or other illustration, describing or explaining what is being shown. Captions are usually positioned underneath a picture; they can be anywhere, as long as you make sure they do relate to the picture and are closely attached to it. Caption Film, Television Usually written CAPT in the left-hand column of a script. More accurately, a caption board. A board containing an illustration to be shot, usually in the studio. Often used to make animatics (qv). Captive audience Advertising An audience assembled in one place for a length of time, and unlikely to leave before that time is up. Thus, it can be exposed to advertising messages without 67
Slide 75: CAPTIVE MARKET interruption. A cinema or theatre performance, or a conference, has a virtually captive audience. Some individuals may leave, and some return, but the audience as a whole stays put until the end. Marketing Captive market Where there is only one supplier of a commodity, and its customers have no choice but to purchase from it, the market is said to be captive. In the UK, this used to be the case with telephone and postal services, and some utilities. Cardboard The amateur term for board. Packaging, Print Print, Proof-reading Caret mark A reader’s mark, / , used for correcting typescripts and proofs. A caret marked in the text shows where additional copy, eg a letter, phrase or sentence, should be inserted. This is matched by a similar mark in the margin, plus the additional copy to be inserted. Carlill vs The Carbolic Smoke Ball Company Advertising, Consumer law An early leading case in UK advertising litigation and consumer protection. Mrs Carlill saw an advertisement, bought the product and used it as prescribed. She contracted influenza within two weeks, and successfully sued the advertiser. Carrier Distribution, Telephone service provision A company supplying distribution, haulage or delivery services is termed a carrier. In the UK, British Telecom, and its competitors supplying telephone communication lines and services, are termed carriers. Carry-through Broadcast media Where radio or television commercial scheduling goes over into a higher-rated programming time segment, and a higher advertising rate applies, this is termed carry-through. The higher rate applied is the carry-through rate. Business, Marketing Cartel Conspiratorial price-fixing by a number of suppliers for a particular commodity. This may be seen, for example, in the supply of petrol (gasoline). In the UK, the Competition Act 1998, which came into force on 1 March 2000, prohibits anticompetitive agreements and the abuse of a dominant position in the market. Information is on www.oft.gov.uk. Carton Packaging A container, usually of tough, thin board, but sometimes completely or partially of plastic. Its main purposes are to allow the supplier to ship the contents in predetermined quantities; and to protect them in transit. 68
Slide 76: CASH AND CARRY Cartridge Paper, Print A tough, uncoated, matt paper with a slightly rough surface. It is popular for use in litho printing. Radio Cartridge A tape cassette containing a jingle, station announcement or commercial. Usually referred to as a cart. Cartridge Photography, Reprographics A light-proof metal or plastic holder for photographic film, particularly sizes 126 and 110. Print, Typography Case When letterpress was in its heyday, and type composition done by hand, compositors stored type in cabinets in the composing room. Each drawer in the cabinet was termed a case. The upper case housed the capital letters; the lower case, the small letters. Capitals came to be called upper case; small letters, lower case. These terms are in widespread use today in English-speaking countries. Case Export, Import, Packaging, Retailing, Wholesaling Another term for a crate or box. In importing and exporting practice, crates and cases are entirely or mostly of wood, to afford maximum protection in transit for the contents. In retailing, a case is usually of board, and contains a set number of product units, such as tins of shoe polish, bars of soap or aerosols of hair spray. Wine is sold by the case, rather than the box or crate. Case history Briefing, Research The origin, progress and development of a marketing, advertising or other operation, or a campaign, giving facts and figures and other important information, in a document produced for that purpose. Case histories are usually incorporated in documents relating to product re-launches, for example, to help in decisionmaking. Case studies Education, Training Case histories written or adapted for academic study. Students are usually briefed and asked questions on a case, leaving them to devise their own conclusions, solutions, outcomes and predictions. Cash and carry Retailing, Wholesaling A distribution operation where a wholesaler sells stock for cash, and does not deliver. Retailers, caterers, and sometimes members of the public, collect using their own transport. Discounts offered by the wholesaler usually make this worthwhile for customers. This often makes it somewhat easier for small traders to compete with supermarkets. 69
Slide 77: CASH DISCOUNT Cash discount Retailing, Wholesaling A worthwhile cut in price offered to retailers and consumers, to encourage them to pay cash for commodities, rather than ask for credit. Business, Distribution, Marketing Cash flow The amount of money lying between revenue and expenditure during the course of day-to-day or week-by-week business operations. Cash flow rates can affect a company’s marketing operations, especially where its products are fast-moving consumer goods. Retail advertising is especially vulnerable to variations in cash flow. Advertising, Business, Direct marketing, Distribution A distribution system by which goods are advertised, but paid for only when delivered. This works both ways to protect buyer and seller. The seller does not receive payment unless and until the goods are delivered. Although the goods have been ordered in advance by the buyer, she holds on to her money until the goods turn up, and the seller’s obligation has been discharged satisfactorily. Usually abbreviated to COD. Cassette A light-proof container for 35 mm film. Photography, Reprographics Cash on delivery Cast off Desktop publishing, Typography To calculate the amount of type space – type area – which will be taken by typescript copy when set in a given typeface and size. Older typographers may still do this with slide-rule or calculator. Computer typesetting, however, has rendered this technique and, sadly, those who practise it, obsolete. Type is now usually infinitely scaleable, and can be composed and adjusted on screen to fit the space allotted to it. Catalogue Direct marketing, Distribution, Marketing A brochure, booklet or book showing products on offer, often in full-colour, with their descriptions, and usually with prices. Terms of business are usually given. Many catalogues contain order forms, so that intending purchasers can place orders by post or fax. Modern catalogue practice also encourages customers to order by telephone, paying immediately by credit card. A business-to-business catalogue may not feature prices in the body of the text, but may have a separate price list inserted. This is because such a catalogue may have a long and active sales life, during which time prices may change, but not products. In this case, it is more economical for the supplier to reprint a price list than a catalogue. Catch-line Journalism, Public relations Also termed a tag-line. A word placed at the head of a news item, feature or article, and at the top left-hand corner of continuation pages. On a proof, it serves as a 70
Slide 78: CELL temporary headline. This is done to identify the piece as concisely as possible; essential when several hundred pieces are passing through a newsroom at the same time. It is also a handy, colloquial way of referring to a piece when discussing it at meetings and on the telephone. Caveat emptor Business, Consumer activity Latin for ‘Let the buyer beware’. The implication is that the law does not protect the consumer from making bad deals. In the UK, numerous acts of parliament have gone a long way towards protecting consumers from fraud and other trickery, making such activities criminal offences. But the consumer is still individually responsible for careful and prudent purchasing. CAVIAR Audience research Acronym for Cinema and Video Industry Audience Research. Operated in the UK by an independent marketing research company, it conducts research into cinema-going audiences for the Cinema Advertising Association. CCTV See Closed circuit television. Social control, Surveillance, Television Ceefax Broadcasting A free public information service provided by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) via its television networks. On television sets equipped to receive it, Ceefax can be accessed by pressing the text key when viewing BBC1 and BBC2 channels. UK commercial television channels provide a similar service. On independent commercial television Channels 3 and 4, the service is called Teletext; on Channel 5, it is called 5 Text. Cell Film production In film animation, a single frame in a sequence of frames, drawn on clear acetate. Each cell is different and progressive, so that when the finished sequence is shot and run through a projector, the illusion of movement is created. In film animation, there are normally 24 frames for every second of movement. Think of the people who animated Tom and Jerry, and genuflect. The word is a corrupt abbreviation of celluloid, on which early animators used to work. See Animation. Cell Print On a gravure printing cylinder, one of the myriad, minute impressions or pits that hold the ink. Cell Computer spreadsheeting, Market forecasting and planning A rectangle containing a single unit of information. 71
Slide 79: CENSUS Census Direct marketing, Social control A national population count, carried out by governments. In the UK, this is carried out every 10 years, to determine demographic data. From time to time, various other censuses are carried out, including data on distribution, production and property. Central Office of Information Government agency, Marketing A government agency with responsibility for distributing information on the UK, including manufacturers, their products and services, via offices in foreign countries. Desktop publishing, Typography, Word-processing Centred Type positioned in the centre of a page, column or ruled box. Centre spread Print The true centre of a newspaper or magazine. Both pages face each other, carry consecutive page numbers, and are printed by the same plate. In the USA, these are known as centerfolds. Publishers claim that advertisers benefit from its central position, and therefore charge premium advertising rates for it. Certificate of attendance Exhibitions, Research An auditing system operated by the Audit Bureau of Circulations (qv), requiring registered members to show proof of public attendance at exhibitions. It also requires accurate information for certification purposes. Certificate of insertion Publishing Confirmation that a loose insert in a newspaper or magazine has actually been inserted and distributed in the publication. The publisher or printer issues this to the advertiser. Certificate of origin International trade A certificate issued by an exporter, showing the origin of goods being exported. Often used by governments and importers to restrict the importation of goods of inappropriate political origin. Certificate of transmission Radio, Television Confirmation issued by a broadcasting station that a commercial has actually gone out on air. It contains air-date, time, channel, airtime and other relevant information. CGI Initials for computer-generated images. Television, Video Chainstore Retailing One store in a group owned by a single company or individual. Each store in the group will carry a range of merchandise appropriate to demand in its own area, plus any national brands enjoying a good level of sales. 72
Slide 80: CHARTERED INSTITUTE OF MARKETING Channel Distribution A short name for a channel of distribution. Channels include wholesalers, retailers, mail order and the Internet. Channel selection involves a mix of the routes through which suppliers serve their customers. Channel A term indicating a radio or television broadcasting station. Broadcasting Character Desktop publishing, Typography, Word-processing A single typeset letter of the alphabet. Often also used to refer to punctuation marks, letter-spaces and, sometimes, numerals. Numerals, however, are a separate case. See Monotype, Nought, Null, Proof, Proof-reader, Proof-reader’s marks, Quote. Desktop publishing, Typography, Word-processing Character count The number of characters and spaces in a piece of copy. Marketing, Retailing Character merchandising Retail merchandising using popular characters from television or cinema. Such characters include Teletubbies, Paddington Bear, Thomas the Tank Engine, Noddy, Ninja Turtles, Batman, The Lion King, the Muppets and The Simpsons. Charge account Finance, Retailing A facility offered to regular customers by a store. The customer is invoiced monthly, and expected to pay promptly. Charge card Finance, Retailing A payment facility offered by a store in the form of a purchase card, which is presented when buying goods at the store. The customer is sent a statement each month. This works in a fashion similar to a credit card; customers are required to pay by a certain date, after which they are charged interest. Chart Presentations, Research analysis A diagram based on arithmetical interpretation of research figures. This serves to present figures for judgement and comparison, help discussion, highlight certain facts and findings. Several forms of chart exist, including curves, histograms, pie charts and bar charts, all of which can be designed to appear in three dimensions. Chartered Institute of Marketing Marketing organizations Formed in the UK in 1911 as the Sales Managers Association and incorporated 10 years later, its range of activities expanded steadily to include other aspects of marketing. In 1961, the name was changed to the Institute of Marketing and Sales Management. In 1968, with the sales management accepted as part of the overall marketing function, it became the Institute of Marketing. 73
Slide 81: CHECKLIST In 1975, the Royal College of Arms gave authority to use the motto ‘The World is our Market’. Ten years later in 1985 the new Institute logo was adopted with the message ‘Marketing Means Business’. Marketing education has always been a key Institute activity, the first Certificate examinations being held in 1928. The range of qualifications now includes the Diploma and Certificate in Marketing, and the Certificate in Sales Management. The Diploma is widely accepted by the University Business Schools, as an academic qualification for entry to post-graduate courses leading to MBA awards. In 1965, the Institute funded the creation of the first Chair of Marketing, at the University of Lancaster. Today the UK has 38 Professors of Marketing. In 1975, Fellows of the Institute established the Guild of Marketors that two years later became the Worshipful Company of Marketors. It is now helping to spread the understanding of marketing within the City of London. Originally based in London, the Institute moved in 1971 to its present nine-acre site at Moor Hall, Cookham. This move provided the environment and space for the organization’s expanding operations, including the development of residential training. Major investments in 1980, 1987 and 1988 resulted in the construction of one of Europe’s most prestigious purpose-built residential training facilities. It incorporates a new, much enlarged library and information centre, and additional accommodation to house the expanding education, membership and marketing consultancy operations. The trend towards greater professionalism in marketing was given a major boost in 1980, when the Institute decreed that all future membership would be by qualification. By 1984, the fast-changing UK and international environment brought a new phase in the Institute’s development, and the redefinition of its strategic objectives: n to extend awareness of effective marketing as the vital factor in business success and national prosperity, and stimulate enhanced marketing performances in the UK; n to raise the calibre and effectiveness of people involved in marketing through professional education and executive training programmes; n to develop the Institute as the professional body in the UK and international marketing, setting professional standards of conduct, providing the necessary services for its members, representing the interests of marketing and the people employed in it, and operating the Institute as the umbrella body for other specialist organizations; n to operate appropriate commercial activities in support of these objectives, and the future development and financial viability of the Institute. Checklist Business, Management, Research A list of tasks to be done, conditions to be met or objectives to be fulfilled. Often compiled as an aide memoire, but more usually as a tool for carrying out work with efficiency, leaving nothing undone. A variety of listing techniques are used; 74
Slide 82: CLEARANCE SALE alphabetical, for example, or numerical. When writers use this technique for planning books and newspaper features, or business executives for report and proposal writing, such a list is termed a synopsis. Retailing Checkout A US word for a till or cash register, usually applied to the payment point in a supermarket or self-service shop. Chroma A colour print made without an intermediate negative. Artwork, Print Chromatic aberration Photography, Reprographics The inability of a lens to bring light of all colours to a common focus point. Direct marketing, Mailings, Sales promotion Circular Printed literature delivered to a pre-defined target audience. This term usually applies to promotional pieces delivered door-to-door. Many circulars, though not all, are written and designed to appeal to residents with similar disposable incomes, identified by the districts in which they live. See ACORN. Circulation Advertising, Media, Publishing The number of copies actually sold of each issue of a publication. Do not confuse this term with readership (qv). See ABC, Controlled circulation, Rate card, Readership, Verified Free Distribution. Classified Press advertising Newspaper and magazine advertising sold by the line, rather than by the page unit. Copy is set in caps and lower case, and no illustrations or logos are allowed. A variation of this format is semi-display classified, sold by the single-columncentimetre. In this case, simple illustrations, headlines and logos are often allowed. In the USA, this is called classified display, and sold by the column inch. See Display. Cleaning Databases, Direct marketing, Mailings Various methods of making mailing lists more efficient. To optimize a mailing list, it is necessary to eliminate duplication, remove names and addresses of those who have died or ‘gone away’, revise data on those who have been promoted, changed jobs, job titles, companies and addresses. Failure to do this periodically can result in a list’s becoming more and more outdated, less and less efficient, and costing more and more to run. Clearance sale Retailing A simple technique for clearing out goods at the end of a season, or when such goods become unfashionable. Sales are announced in local media. 75
Slide 83: CLICK-THROUGH RATE Click-through rate E-business, E-commerce, Internet activity The number of visitors who click and land on a Web site or Web page. Caveat: there is currently no reliable, independent, international auditing process for clickthrough traffic. At the time of writing this edition of the Dictionary, there is only the Web site owner’s word to be had. Client Business Among the professions, of which marketing is one, another term for a customer. This sounds more sophisticated than the more ordinary word customer, which is usually used in retailing. Referring to a customer as a client often implies substantial fees. Clip Film, Video Also called a library shot. An existing shot or sequence abstracted from an existing film, and used on its own for another production. In radio, this is called a sound bite. Clipping Media services, Public relations The physical cutting out of an editorial item from a newspaper or magazine. The companies that do this commercially are called press-cutting or clipping agencies. In the UK, Romeike and Newsclip are two such agencies. Closed circuit television Social control, Surveillance, Television Closed circuit television (CCTV). An installation comprising television cameras positioned at strategic points in public places or stores, so that the public can be observed on monitors in a central control room. Used extensively by police and local government, and in retail and wholesale outlets, shopping malls and sports grounds, it is a measure adopted to help prevent theft, street crime and vandalism. In January 2000, the UK Independent newspaper reported the installation of CCTV cameras on housing estates, in town and city centres, along beach-fronts, in universities, outside pubs and overlooking car parks and streets in England and Wales. The UK Home Office estimates that there are at least a million cameras on the streets and shopping centres of the UK. In London, it is estimated that anybody moving around the capital is caught on camera at least 300 times a day. Closing technique Sales techniques Towards the end of a salesperson’s sales pitch, a technique for encouraging or inducing the potential customer to buy the product, secure an order or sign a contract. This is probably the most crucial moment of the pitch, except perhaps for the opening moments. It takes a good deal of training and practice to achieve this, though many companies fail to equip their sales staff with such techniques. Cluster Research A group of respondents who agree in principle on a pre-determined topic being researched. 76
Slide 84: COLD CALLING Cluster sample A group of respondents selected geographically by locality. Research Coarse screen Print, Production A halftone screen that has a smaller number of dots per square centimetre or square inch. Each dot is correspondingly larger. While all halftone printing is a compromise, coarse screen is recognized as the optimum technique for printing on coarse materials such as newsprint. The better or smoother the surface to be printed, the finer the screen can be; that is, smaller dots, and more of them to the square centimetre or square inch. Business, Direct marketing, Distribution COD Initials for cash on delivery (qv). This should never be pronounced ‘cod’. Coding Marketing, Media, Press advertising, Print The use of letters and numbers as keys to identifying the origin of coupons and reply cards. It is important that replies be traced and attributed accurately, so that the media and account planners can evaluate the cost-effectiveness of the media and printed literature used. Behavioural science, Buyer behaviour Cognition Mental processes that enable humans to give meaning to their environment and experiences. They are of most importance during learning and perception. See Cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance Buyer behaviour, Marketing There is a widely held theory that a person’s attitudes tend to be consistent. The actions of an individual are therefore held to be consistent. However, in making a decision to purchase a product, for example, this is not always the case. A person often experiences inner conflict, in which she needs to weigh positives, negatives and alternatives relating both to the product and the purchase. This is said to produce cognitive dissonance. The psychological discomfort generated by cognitive dissonance may produce irrational and unpredictable buying decisions. The opposite is cognitive consonance. COI Government agency, Marketing Initials for Central Office of Information, a UK government information, publicity and propaganda agency (qv). Cold calling Sales technique A field technique involving visits to prospective customers by sales staff without an appointment. Also called cold canvassing. See Canvass. 77
Slide 85: COLD MAILING Cold mailing Marketing, Sales A mailing technique using a new or refurbished database, to solicit new business. The mailing equivalent of cold calling. Sales promotion Collar retailing A paper or plastic collar designed to fit over the neck of a bottle. Offers, competitions, give-aways and other promotional material are printed on the collar. Collateral Advertising, Marketing Promotional activities in support of main press and broadcast advertising campaigns. These can include printed literature, direct mail, exhibitions, give-aways and Internet activity. Finance Collateral Physical assets, such as property, pledged as a guarantee for the repayment of loaned money. Bindery practice, Finishing, Print, Production Collating Assembling pages of a piece of printed literature in the correct order before binding. Colour bars Print Small rectangles in four-colour process printing colours, yellow, magenta, cyan and black. These enable the printer and production team to check the density of the colours on the printed page; and also to a limited extent the registration of the colours being printed, though this is done more accurately by register marks (qv). The same check scheme appears on wet proofs (qv), and on Cromalins (qv). Colour bars Television The test signal for television cameras; a series of vertical colour bars on screen. Colour display Computing, Information technology A colour video display unit (VDU); a multicoloured screen. Colour filter Photography, Reprographics A tinted glass disk attached to the front of a camera lens. Its function is to change the colour values of the light reaching the film. The tints vary widely, according to the modification the photographer wants. A red filter, for example, will produce spectacular sky and cloud effects. A yellow filter is often used to correct flesh tones. Colour grading Film, Television, Video A laboratory procedure in which the colour values of the master footage are adjusted for consistency. 78
Slide 86: COMB BINDING Colour negative Photography A type of photographic film producing the colour image in negative form. Used for making photoprints. Photography Colour reversal A type of photographic film that produces the colour image in positive form. Used for making photographic transparencies. Colour separations Photography, Print, Production An electronic-photographic technique for preparing printing plates from fullcolour originals. The process transmutes the full-colour image into the four component colours used in process printing: yellow, magenta, cyan and black. This in turn produces either a set of printing plates, or a set of photographic negatives, one per colour, from which plates are made. Each plate prints only one of these colours. In the purely photographic technique, optical colour filters are used. Each filter produces the colour values for a single printing plate. See Screen angle. Colour supplement Publishing A full-colour magazine sold with a newspaper and included in the cover price (qv). Most weekend newspapers in the UK and the USA include colour supplements. In the UK, some mid-week newspapers carry colour supplements. Colour temperature Photography, Reprographics The measurement of a light source in terms of its colour quality. Its colour temperature is expressed in degrees Kelvin. Column Artwork, Desktop publishing, Typography, Word-processing A block of text and other copy set vertically on the screen or printed page. The unit of horizontal measurement of the column is its width. You describe the type area of a column on a page as follows: an area of copy 20 cm high and one column wide is described as ‘20 cm by 1 column’, or ‘20 column centimetres’. The same type area over several columns is described thus: ‘10 cm by 2 columns’. The height is always given first. For advertising media planning in the UK and the European Union (EU), type area is measured in column-centimetres. In the USA, column height is measured in inches, type area in column-inches. Column rules Desktop publishing, Typography Thin, solid rules, usually 1pt, separating columns of copy in newspapers, magazines, catalogues and other publications. Comb binding Finishing, Print, Production Binding together pages of a document or printed literature, using plastic strip shaped like a comb. Wire spiral is also used for this binding method. 79
Slide 87: COMBINE Combine Block-making, Print, Production In letterpress printing, a physical combination of halftone and line techniques in the same printing block. Usually termed a line and tone combine. Computing, Information technology Command An instruction in computer language, in the form of a character string or an alphanumeric mix of letters and numbers. Commando selling Marketing, Product management, Sales operations Also called blitz selling. An intensive and often aggressive field selling effort, using a specially constituted sales force. An organization’s regular sales force may be supplemented by a freelance specialist team assembled for a particular operation or period. Often used in product launches and re-launches, and when a product is under competitive attack. Commercial Film, Television, Video Shorthand for a televised, videoed or filmed commercial advertisement. See Still, Voice-over. Commercial break Radio, Television A break during news and entertainment programming, in which advertising is inserted. Usually, simply called a break. Commission Advertising Reward in the form of a percentage discount, paid to advertising agencies for placing advertising space and airtime bookings on behalf of clients. In former times, 15 per cent was the accepted norm; sometimes 10 per cent. Today, following de-regulation, agency commission is negotiable. Commission Freelance services To sub-contract a job to an outside specialist, such as a copywriter, photographer, artist or researcher. Communication mix Marketing communications In a promotional campaign, the various elements of communication combined to achieve a pre-determined marketing objective. Each campaign may have a different mix, possibly a different target audience. The elements of the mix include advertising, public relations, sales promotion, direct mail and corporate communications. Communication objectives Marketing, Marketing communications Pre-determined results to be achieved by marketing campaigns using marketing communications techniques. This embodies a set of criteria against which a campaign can be judged once it is running and after its completion. Objectives can include enquiry and sales levels to be achieved, consumer awareness levels, 80
Slide 88: COMPATIBILITY customer, supplier and shareholder confidence, and coverage by the media. From the marketer’s point of view, the most effective objectives, and the results obtained from them, are those that can be measured using established research techniques. Briefing, Business, Marketing planning Company profile A detailed description of a business or organization. Detail may include the history of the company from its inception; its directors and their backgrounds; its financial set-up, turnover and profitability over time; its marketing history and current market share, assets and liabilities, products, services and employees. There should be enough detail in a profile to enable management, their suppliers, shareholders and customers, to compare the organization with others. Advertising creative technique Comparative advertising In advertising copy, highlighting direct comparisons between a company’s products and services and competitors. Naturally this is usually done when one’s own comes off best. In the UK, codes of practice allow comparative advertising only when the comparisons are based on fact. Disparagement, also known as knocking copy, is not allowed; penalties and punishments follow breaches of the codes. Similar arrangements exist in mainland Europe and the USA. See Advertising Standards Authority, Independent Television Commission, Radio Authority. Comparative media Advertising, Marketing communications A compilation of media facts and figures, enabling media planners to compare one medium with another. This is an important technique in evaluating media costeffectiveness. Each publication or broadcast medium is assessed on its ability to reach a pre-determined target audience with maximum penetration and minimum cost. Comparison shopping Marketing, Marketing research, Retailing Investigation by a retailer or retail group, into the in-store or merchandising techniques of its competitors. Individual shoppers are assigned to note such detail as prices, special offers, loss leaders, shelving arrangements and changes, and report back to their sponsors. This enables them to study, evaluate and compare brands against each other, and estimate the value of brand loyalty. Comparison testing Marketing, Marketing research A technique for investigating, comparing and evaluating brands, products and services in relation to each other. This is best achieved by commissioning an independent research organization with no connection with manufacturer, distributor or marketing specialist or any intermediary. Compatibility Computer networking, Computer peripherals, Computing When one machine can use the same software, data and components as another without modification it is said to be compatible. 81
Slide 89: COMPETITION Competition Business, Marketing Businesses in a market in active confrontation for commercial advantage. The act of competing for a market or market share is normal in all normal business activity. In terms of competitive activity, markets are structured in the following way: n Pure competition. A large number of companies marketing identical products and services. n Monopolistic competition. Several large companies, each offering a unique marketing mix. n Oligopoly. A small number of large companies dominating sales in a particular industry. n Monopoly. A single company marketing a particular product or service. Competitions Sales promotion Consumer marketing activity designed to revive flagging sales, or respond to competitive attack. In the USA, the terminology is consumer contests. The public is asked to compete for prizes by testing their skills and provide solutions or answers to questions. There is usually a tie-breaker, a device for ensuring outright winners. Proof of purchase is often required. Many newspapers and magazines run competitions sponsored by advertisers or companies mentioned in editorials. Proof of purchase in this case is usually the entry coupon itself. Competitions and prize draws are tightly controlled by legislation and voluntary controls. See Advertising Standards Authority, British Codes of Advertising and Sales Promotion. Competitive advantage Business, Marketing Efforts by an organization to gain greater advantage over its competitors in the same market. Techniques vary, but they usually include the offer and promotion of extra products, benefits, warranty, services, support and competitive claims (qv). Competitive claims Advertising, Business A set of benefits offered by a manufacturer, supplier or organization, seeking to convince customers to take a decision to purchase from it, rather than from the competition. In the UK, and most of mainland Europe, these claims must, by law, be based on fact and capable of substantiation. Competitive edge Business, Marketing A situation in which an organization has, or seeks to have, a major commercial advantage over its direct competitors. Competitive pitching Advertising, Business, Marketing Competing for business, based on unique advantages offered by the organization doing the pitch. This may involve advantages in added value, quality, price, service, support or timing; or all these together. 82
Slide 90: CONCEPT Competitive pricing Marketing, Retailing Essentially, lower-than-normal prices, sometimes accompanied by inducements. Sometimes offered to loyal customers or frequent purchasers as an incentive to remain loyal to a supplier, product or service. Popular among insurance and software companies, carpet retailers and supermarkets. Competitive strategy Marketing The planning and working through of a long-term policy, with the objective of overtaking the competition, and maintaining a company’s competitive position in an industry. To fulfil this objective, all the tools of the marketing mix are used. Business, Marketing Competitor A company or individual that competes for trade with one’s own company, product or service, and usually with others in the same industry or business arena. Complementary demand Business, Marketing The demand for a particular product or service prompting demand for another, generally related to it. For example: Oral-B and Sensodyne, both brands marketing toothpaste and toothbrushes. Kodak markets film and cameras. Desktop publishing, Print, Typography, Word-processing Composition Originally meant setting metal type, either by hand or machine. It still means this, even though computers have now largely taken over composition. One of the most useful advances computers have brought to composition is automatic hyphenation, justification and page formatting. The person composing the type is a compositor, though sometimes a DTP operator. See Make-up, Mark-up. Computer graphics Computing Any graphic created and generated on a computer, and which can be processed, modified and stored electronically: drawings, graphs and charts, for example. Computer to plate Print, Production Also known by its initials, CTP. A production technique in which printing plates are imaged direct from a digital file, rather than from film. At a time when printers and their customers demand shorter lead times, increased productivity and reasonable costs, CTP helps to achieve these objectives. There are a number of other substantial advantages. After a plate has been produced, the production data can be archived by the system’s software. This can be retrieved at any time, and another copy made of the plate. With some CTP production systems, the operator can view the layout of the plate, and the design and colour of the image requested in a preview file displayed on screen. Concept Advertising, Creative teamwork, Marketing communications A basic design for an advertisement, leaflet, brochure or other marketing communications tool. The concept expresses the promotional ideas behind the design, as 83
Slide 91: CONCEPT TESTING much as highlighting elements of its physical appearance. After the concept has been approved by management, the creative team proceeds to develop the concept into a campaign. Manufacturing, Marketing, Product management Concept testing The first stage in the evaluation of an idea or concept for a product. A focus group or panel of potential customers is introduced to the idea, under the guidance of an experienced researcher. The discussion, and the panel’s reactions to the concept, are monitored, recorded and analysed by the research and product management teams. The results may determine whether the concept is worthy of development, or should be abandoned. Marketing communications Concept testing A similar procedure is carried out in the testing of advertising, public relations, sales promotion and other marketing communications ideas. A variety of copy and designs are usually presented to the panel for discussion and reaction. Concertina fold Print finishing Sometimes called an accordion fold. A page or leaflet with two parallel folds, which open like the bellows of an accordion. Composition, Desktop publishing, Typesetting, Typography A tall or narrow version of a roman or standard typeface. Often used for headlines and body copy in narrow pages or columns where horizontal space is at a premium. Condensed type is more difficult to read than regular type, particularly where the italic version is used; it should therefore be used in moderation. See Extended. Conjoint analysis Marketing, Marketing research A comparison technique designed to reveal features and benefits of products and services most likely to influence purchasing decisions. Product attributes are evaluated and weighed against each other in each case. Consideration Business, Contract law An essential part of a legally binding contract. The other two essentials are offer and acceptance. Consideration usually refers to the financial value of the goods or services named in the contract. It can also refer to a thing given or done as equivalent by a person to whom a promise is made. There is an appropriate anecdote about a man who sees another drowning in a river. The man on the bank offers to save the man in the water, and asks what he would give in exchange for being saved. The drowning man proposes giving his daughter in marriage. The other, agreeing, pulls him from the water. The following day, the saver turns up at the other’s house, demanding his reward. ‘No way,’ says the saved man. ‘But you accepted my offer!’ says the saver. ‘Let that be a lesson Condensed 84
Slide 92: CONSUMER to you,’ replies the saved one. ‘Past consideration is no consideration.’ Readers would be well advised to consult a lawyer before conducting marketing business along these lines. Economic theory, Marketing theory Conspicuous consumption A US economist, Thorstein Veblen, uncovered a strong emotional element in the motives behind the purchase of products. According to his theory, most products tend to be bought as much for approval by others as for strictly practical purposes. Thus, the car you buy, and park outside your house, has as much to do with impressing neighbours, friends and relatives, as with safety and comfort. The same applies to choices in fashion, food, wine, holidays and, to some extent, social contact. It further applies to the display of evidence of charitable donations. In the UK, the wearing of a poppy long before and after 11 November, for example, is visible evidence of conspicuous compassion. So is the display of red plastic hemispheres on car radiators, and maintaining them there long after a ‘red nose day’ charitable event. Consumer Marketing, Research A buyer or user of a product or service. This is not a straightforward, watertight definition, however. Children, for example, are consumers of household and other products, but do not usually buy them. However, they can heavily influence purchases made by the parent or householder, and much advertising is aimed at them for this purpose. Another, more complex example: in medical and pharmaceutical marketing, the manufacturer promotes his product both to the general practitioner and the pharmacist. However, the GP does not buy the product, and does not usually handle it; he merely prescribes it for the patient. The patient is the end-user of the medication, but has no influence over its selection. The patient takes the prescription to a pharmacist, who dispenses it, as prescribed, from his stock. Under the UK National Health Service, the government pays the pharmacist part of the cost, the patient paying the rest. Pensioners, and some patients with chronic conditions, consume medications but pay nothing. Although the manufacturer may promote the product to the pharmaceutical profession, the pharmacist has no choice but to supply the product specified by the GP. Confused? You should be. In consumer and business-to-business marketing communications, the tableau of decision-makers includes: n n n n n n n identifiers; influencers; specifiers; deciders; buyers; end-users; gatekeepers. 85
Slide 93: CONSUMER ADVERTISING Industrial consumers are not normally referred to as such, but that is what they are in the final analysis. The chain of influence and decision-making is fairly straightforward, however, bearing in mind the decision-makers in the previous paragraph. Consumer advertising Advertising, Marketing, Marketing communications Advertising activities aimed at the general public, as distinct from business-tobusiness, trade and technical and industrial markets. Consumer advertising uses consumer media – television, press, radio and cinema; also outdoor advertising, sales promotion and mass mailing, when supporting mainstream consumer campaigns. Consumer behaviour Marketing techniques In a marketing context, the observation of the decision-making, purchasing patterns and habits of the general public. Behavioural science is increasingly used in the service of marketing, in the sense that consumer behaviour can be analysed and predicted. Group consumer behaviour can be more easily predicted than individual behaviour. Consumer benefits Advertising, Marketing, Marketing communications The presentation of product functions and features so that they are represented in terms of what they can do for the consumer. This is the true value to the consumer of a product or service. In marketing communications such as advertising and sales promotion, consumer benefits are sometimes presented as a promise of advantages or delights to come. Insurance is a case in point. Kodak has for decades promoted its film range not on a platform solely of technical excellence, but of memories preserved for years to come. Thus, using Kodak film on unrepeatable occasions such as birthdays or weddings, and viewing it at a future time, justifies the purchase. The appeal is emotional rather than technical. Charles Revson of Revlon used to say that although he sold bottles of scented fluid, what his customers were buying was hope. I have paraphrased here, obviously. Product features are what a product does or how it performs in a technical sense. The technical features of a product or service must be capable of supporting the benefits, and the advertiser is legally obliged to tell the truth about both. Consumer credit Finance, Marketing, Retailing To encourage or help consumers to purchase a product or service, an offer of credit by a supplier. This is done either through a finance house, or by credit cards such as Visa or Mastercard. A store card or charge card is also a credit card, provided that it gives the user a period of credit, either free or subject to interest, or both. A debit card is not a credit card, since it is the equivalent of a cheque (check), and is therefore subject to different terms and conditions. 86
Slide 94: CONSUMER PRESS Consumer durables Marketing Consumer products that are bought infrequently and have a long life in use. These include furniture, carpets, refrigerators, televisions and motor vehicles. Marketing, Marketing research Consumer group A classification of consumers, based on particular characteristics or criteria. These include demographics, psychographics, lifestyle, buying power and disposable income. Consumerism Marketing Organized activity, mainly by pressure groups, aimed at improving and safeguarding consumer interests. Many of these efforts are covertly political; appropriate caution needs to be exercised by marketers. Advertising, Marketing, Marketing research Consumer needs and wants Needs refers to the basics of human function and need, and is a fundamental of marketing practice. Wants refers to the desire to acquire, whether rational and pragmatic or irrational and emotional. Sometimes needs and wants appear interchangeable, and can change with time. Thus, a television is now a need, having once been a want; a car is a now a need; foreign holidays, a want, but sometimes treated as a need. Marketing and advertising techniques should be tailored both to needs and wants, with the usual cautions about research findings. Consumer orientation Business, Marketing A company philosophy that actively takes its consumers or customers as the basis for its long-term development. Consumer satisfaction is here seen as the prime motivation for its management and workers, from chairman to floor staff. In such a company, marketing, competitive positioning, returns on investment, product and corporate growth are focused and depend directly on it. Consumer panels Marketing research Groups of ordinary consumers set up and organized to offer views on products and services they have purchased. Their opinions, purchasing patterns and habits are evaluated by professional researchers reporting to research organizations or marketing teams. Consumer preference Marketing research A research technique in which relative strengths of consumer preference for products and services are analysed statistically. This offers marketers clues to the likely success of their own products and services in the marketplace. Consumer press Marketing, Media Journals and magazines usually bought for and read by the general public. The consumer press is highly segmented, with magazines targeted at wide and narrow consumer interests. For example, there is a segment aimed at women as a whole, 87
Slide 95: CONSUMER PRICES with sub-segments such as singles, marrieds, the young, the very young, the old and so on. There is a vast range of magazines produced for consumers with common interests. These include sports, model aircraft, travel and animal care; medical conditions such as diabetes; intellectual pursuits such as books and films. The range is too wide for the inclusion of everything here; consult British Rate and Data (UK), Standard Rate and Data Service (USA), Tarif Media (France), Media Daten (Germany) and similar publications. Consumer prices Marketing, Retailing The generally accepted range of prices charged at retail level for consumer products. The concept can loosely be applied also to consumer services. Consumer products Marketing, Retailing Products produced for and aimed at individual consumers. Those produced for business and corporate use are loosely termed industrial goods or products. Consumer protection Legislation, Marketing, Retailing Legal instruments and codes of practice used in the marketing of consumer goods and services. In the UK, consumer protection measures have infiltrated almost every area of commercial life and trading practice. The volume increases every year. Consumer purchasing power Marketing Another way of saying disposable income. This is the money a consumer has left after statutory and other obligations have been met. These include income tax, national insurance, mortgage, loan repayment, credit agreements, alimony and child support. Marketing research, Research Consumer research Research into the habits, motives, attitudes and patterns of behaviour of individuals and groups of consumers. Mostly applied to the purchase of goods and services, but also to political and cultural matters. Consumers’ Association Consumer organizations A UK watchdog organization. A registered charity, set up in 1950, with a current membership of about 680,000, and headquarters in London. Its publications include Which?, Gardening Which?, Holiday Which?, Drug and Therapeutics Bulletin, Health Which? and Legal Services. The total subscriptions to CA products are about 970,000. Consumer satisfaction Marketing, Marketing research Ideally, consumer products and services are marketed with consumer satisfaction as an objective. Directing marketing activity towards consumer satisfaction is one way of encouraging brand loyalty; whether targeted at consumer needs or wants (qv). Long-term loyalty is a basic aim of all marketing effort. Measuring and evaluating it accurately is another matter, though techniques do exist for this. 88
Slide 96: CONTINUITY Consumption Marketing The quantity of a product used by a group of individuals or organizations over a period of time, and the rate at which it is used. Contact print Photography A photographic print made when the negative or positive is in intimate contact with the photographic paper. The contact is direct between emulsion and emulsion; that is, both light-sensitive surfaces. Colloquially termed contacts. Contact report Client account handling A structured report written by an account manager after meeting with a client. It should cover: n n n n n n n n n n the date of the meeting; time; venue; names of those present; summary of matters discussed; decisions taken; action required; names or initials of those responsible for taking the action; circulation list; date of the next meeting. The report should be printed and copies circulated quickly to all who attended the meeting, plus any others affected by the matters discussed and action agreed. A copy of the report should be filed in a Facts Book, the permanent record of such meetings. Contact screen Artwork, Photography, Plate-making A halftone screen on film or glass, consisting of ruled lines laid out in a pattern to produce halftone dots. The screen is positioned in intimate contact with the receiving film or plate; emulsion to emulsion for the sharpest definition. See Halftone. Contest The US term for a competition (qv). Sales promotion Continuity Advertising, Film, Marketing, Video In advertising and marketing, the consistent use of an attribute, illustration, phrase or other brand property throughout a campaign or series of campaigns. Continuity Film, Video A consistent succession of content in scenes that appear to follow one another without a break. Often the shooting of a scene is distantly spaced over time. However, a man wearing a dark blue shirt, seen entering a doorway, should not be seen emerging from it on the other side in a white shirt. 89
Slide 97: CONTINUOUS RESEARCH Continuous research Advertising, Marketing, Marketing communications A research technique used in monitoring the performance of campaigns, before, during and afterwards. Often used between campaigns on a regular basis or at regular intervals. Also termed rolling research. Continuous tone Artwork, Photography, Plate-making In original photographs, the colours and shades are reproduced from black to white, in a seamless range of tones. Because the tones are continuous right across the range, this manifestation is referred to as continuous tone. Technically, it is an image in which tonal gradation is produced by changes in density. See Halftone, Contrast. Con-tob Classified advertising A popular UK abbreviation in trade and recruitment classifieds, indicating that a business is confectioner, tobacconist and newsagent. Sometimes expressed as contob-news. Contra Business, Marketing communications, Media A deal struck between two media, in which each carries promotion material for the other, without money changing hands. Thus, a radio station may carry a promotion for a newspaper, and the paper carry the radio station’s promotion. Similar bartering takes place in other business dealings; in this case, goods and services are involved. Contract Advertising, Business, Marketing, Public relations An agreement, usually between two parties, for the supply of goods, services or work. To be legally binding and enforceable, it must have three essentials: offer, acceptance, and a specified price, called ‘consideration’. It can also be an accepted promise to do or not to do something specified. A legal contract need not be in writing. However, in advertising and marketing business, in which large sums of money are usually involved, it is prudent to have everything in writing. A contract of service is an agreement between an advertiser and an advertising agency, or a client and a public relations agency. This usually stipulates conditions of service, including fees, method of working together, personnel involved, method of remuneration, conditions of assignment of copyright, and the agreed notice of contract termination. Contrast Artwork, Photography, Plate-making, Television Although photographically produced material is continuous in tone, there is a degree of separation between tones. If there were not, you would see just a blur of coloured mud on the print, rather than the proper image. Contrast, therefore, is the ability of the photographic material to separate the degrees of light and shade in an image, so that it is intelligible. The same applies to electronically produced images on screen. 90
Slide 98: CONTROLLED CIRCULATION Contribution analysis Product management A technique for establishing the difference between the selling price of a product and its variable production costs. It should then be possible to establish its contribution to fixed costs and profits. Controlled circulation Media planning, Publishing A publication that circulates to a pre-selected target audience is described as having controlled circulation. Many professional, trade and specialist publications are distributed using this system. The main commercial characteristic is that they are free to the reader. Circulation is determined by the precise description of the category of reader. The qualification system is common to all controlled circulation magazines. Marketing Week, for example, circulates to the marketing and advertising industry. To receive your free copy, you must first fill in, date and sign a reader application card. The personal details you are asked for are: n n n n n n n n n company address; company name; county; initials; personal title; postcode; surname; telephone number; town. You are then asked for two main items of information. First, your company’s main area of business, including: n n n n n agencies; consultancies; manufacturing; media owner; services. This is followed by: n the number of full-time employees in your company; n your responsibility for part/all of your company’s marketing/advertising expenditure; n your involvement in any marketing/sales/promotion activities in Europe; n your involvement in decisions on recruitment advertising; n your involvement in your company’s selection or purchase of various products and services; 91
Slide 99: CONTROL QUESTION n if you are with a client company/consultancy, your company’s total marketing/ advertising spend; n if you are with an advertising agency, your company’s approximate billings. The application must be signed and dated. If you fail to complete any of these sections, including signature and date, the publisher will send the card back to you for completion. The publisher then considers your application, and decides if you really do qualify for a free ‘subscription’. If you do qualify, you get the publication free for a year, after which you will be asked to fill in a further application. If you don’t qualify, you can still get the publication, but you’ll have to pay for it, and the publisher will tell you how much it costs. The whole point of this procedure is that the circulation is audited by an independent third party, such as the ABC (qv). That is how advertisers know they are getting the utmost value for that part of their budgets spent with controlled circulation publications. See ABC, Circulation, Rate card, Readership, Verified Free Distribution. Control question Marketing research A technique used in the compilation of research questionnaires, designed to check the validity of the respondent’s answers to other questions. Controls Advertising, Marketing, Marketing communications, Product management The number of legal instruments, parliamentary acts, orders and regulations applying to marketing is constantly increasing, being updated, augmented and amended. There are also local laws and by-laws to be taken into account. The laws on contract, negligence, libel and intellectual property also need to be checked and observed. Not surprisingly, the Advertising Standards Authority advises that businesses have primary responsibility for ensuring that everything they do is legal. The European Union, in addition, imposes its own laws, decrees, directives and regulations, some of which supersede, replace or overlay UK law. For this reason, the reader of this Dictionary is recommended to check, and check again, when planning marketing operations. Here is a taster, a mere 179 laws British marketers have to live with: Accommodation Agencies Act 1963; Administration of Justice Act 1985; Adoption Act 1976; Agriculture (Safety, Health and Welfare Provisions) Act 1956; Alcoholic Liquor Duties Act 1979; Architects Act 1997; Banking Act 1987; Banking Act 1987 (Advertisements) Regulations (1988) as amended; Betting and Gaming Duties Act 1981; Betting Gaming and Lotteries Acts 1963–1985; Bingo Act 1992; Bread and Flour Regulations 1995; British Telecommunications Act 1981; Broadcasting Acts 1990 and 1996; Building Societies Act 1986; Business Advertisements (Disclosure) Order 1997; Business Names Act 1985; Cancer Act 1939; Charities Act 1992 and Regulations; Children Act 1989; Children and Young 92
Slide 100: CONTROLS Persons (Harmful Publications) Act 1995; Children and Young Persons Acts 1933 and 1963; Civil Aviation Act 1982; Civil Aviation (Air Travel Organizers’ Licensing) Regulations 1995 as amended; Civil Aviation (Aerial Advertising) Regulations 1995; Cocoa and Chocolate Products Regulations 1976; Coffee and Coffee Products Regulations 1978; Companies Act 1985; Competition Acts 1980 and 1998; Condensed Milk and Dried Milk Regulations 1997; Conduct of Employment Agencies and Employment Businesses Regulations 1976; Consumer Credit Act 1974; Consumer Credit (Advertisements) Regulations 1989; Consumer Credit (Exempt Advertisements) Order 1985; Consumer Protection Act 1987 and the Code of Practice for Traders on Price Indications; Consumer Transactions (Restrictions on Statements) Order 1976 as amended; Control of Misleading Advertisements Regulations 1988; Control of Pesticides Regulations 1986 as amended; Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988; Cosmetics Products (Safety) Regulations 1996 as amended; Crossbows Act 1987; Customs and Excise Management Act 1979; Data Protection Act 1984; Data Protection Act 1998; Defamation Act 1952; Defamation Act 1996; Dentists Act 1984; Deregulation and Contracting Out Act 1994; Deregulation (Betting and Bingo Advertising etc) Order 1997; Deregulation (Casinos) Order 1999; Disability Discrimination Act 1995; Education Act 1996; Employment Agencies Act 1973; Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act 1976 as amended; Energy Act 1976; Estate Agents Act 1979; European Communities Act 1972; Fair Trading Act 1973; Finance Act 1981; Financial Services Act 1986; Financial Services Act 1986 (Investment Advertisements) (Exemptions) Orders 1995–97; Firearms Act 1968 as amended; Fireworks (Safety) Regulations 1997; Flavourings in Food Regulations 1992; Food Labelling Regulations 1984 and 1996 as amended; Food Safety Act 1990 and Regulations; Food Intended for Use in Energy Restricted Diets for Weight Reduction Regulations 1997; Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981; Friendly Societies Act 1974 and 1992; Gaming Act 1968 as amended; General Optical Council (Rules on Publicity) Order of Council 1985; Geneva Convention Act 1957 as amended; Hallmarking Act 1973; Hearing Aid Council Act 1968; Hearing Aid Council (Amendment) Act 1989; HIV Testing Kits and Services Regulations 1992; Honey Regulations 1976; Human Organ Transplant Act 1989; Human Rights Act 1998; Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1988; Indecent Displays (Control) Act 1981; Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1965; Infant Formula and Follow-on Formula Regulations 1995; Insurance Brokers (Registration) Act 1997; Insurance Brokers Registration Council (Code of Conduct) Approval Order 1994; Insurance Companies Act 1982; Insurance Companies Regulations 1994; Jam and Similar Products Regulations 1981; Knives Act 1997; Licensing Act 1964; Local Government Act 1992; Local Government (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1982; London Cab Acts 1968 and 1973; London County Council (General Powers) Act 1938; Lotteries and Amusements Act 1976 and amendments; Mail Order Transactions (Information) Order 1976; Malicious Communications Act 1988; Marine etc Broadcasting (Offences) Act 1967; Meat Products and Spreadable Fish Products Regulations 1984; Medicines Act 1968; Medicines (Advertising of Medicinal Products) Regulations 1975 and 1975 (No 2); Medicines (Advertising) Regulations 93
Slide 101: CONTROLS 1994 as amended; Medicines (Advertising and Monitoring of Advertising) Amendment Regulations 1999; Medicines for Human Use (Marketing Authorizations) Regulations 1994; Medicines (Monitoring of Advertising) Regulations 1994; Metropolitan Streets Act 1867; Milk and Milk Products (Protection of Designations) Regulations 1990; Misrepresentation Act 1967; Mock Auctions Act 1961; Motor Cars (Driving Instruction) Regulations 1989 as amended; National Lottery etc Act 1993 as amended; National Lottery Regulations 1994; Natural Mineral Water Regulations 1984; Nightwear (Safety) Regulations 1985 as amended; Nurses Agencies Act 1957; Nurses Midwives and Health Visitors Act 1997; Obscene Publications Act 1959; Olympic Symbol etc (Protection) Act 1995; Opticians Act 1989 and Regulations; Organic Products Regulations 1992 as amended; Package Travel, Package Holidays and Package Tours Regulations 1992 as amended; Passenger Car Fuel Consumption Order 1983 as amended; Personal Pension Schemes (Advertisements) Regulations 1990; Post Office Act 1953; Prevention of Corruption Acts 1889–1916; Price Indications (Method of Payment) Regulations 1991; Price Marking Order 1991 as amended; Private Hire Vehicles (London) Act 1998; Professions Supplementary to Medicine Act 1991; Property Misdescriptions Act 1991; Protection of Children Act 1978; Protection of Children (Tobacco) Act 1986; Race Relations Act 1976; Registered Designs Act 1949; Registered Homes Act 1984; Rent Act 1977; Representation of the People Act 1983; Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959 as amended; Restriction on Agreements (Estate Agents) Order 1970; Restrictive Trade Practices Act 1976; Road Traffic Act 1988; Sale of Goods Act 1979; Sex Discrimination Acts 1975 and 1986; Social Security Act 1986; Solicitors Act 1974; Specified Sugar Products Regulations 1976; Spreadable Fats (Marketing Standards) Regulations 1995; Sunday Entertainments Act 1932; Sunday Observance Act 1780; Sunday Theatre Act 1972; Sunday Trading Act 1994; Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982; Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985; Tattooing of Minors Act 1969; Telecommunications Act 1984; Telecommunications Apparatus (Advertisements) Order 1985 as amended; Telecommunications Apparatus (Marking and Labelling) Order 1985 as amended; Telecommunications (Data Protection and Privacy) (Direct Marketing) Regulations 1998 as amended; Textile Products (Indications of Fibre Content) Regulations 1986; Thefts Acts 1968 and 1978; Timeshare Act 1992; Timeshare Regulations 1997; Torts (Interference with Goods) Act 1977; Trade Descriptions Act 1968; Trade Descriptions (Sealskin Goods) (Information) Order 1980; Trade Marks Act 1994; Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992; Trading Schemes Act 1996; Trading Schemes Regulations 1997; Trading Stamps Act 1964; Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977; Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1994; Unsolicited Goods and Services Act 1971 as amended in 1975; Vagrancy Act 1824; Venereal Disease Act 1917; Veterinary Surgeons Act 1966; Weights and Measures Act 1985; Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981; Wireless Telegraphy Act 1949 See Advertising Standards Authority, Independent Television Commission, Radio Authority. 94
Slide 102: CONVICTION Convenience foods Retailing Also called fast foods. Complete dishes, prepared in advance and pre-packed, which need only heating and serving. Sometimes a minimal amount of cooking is required. Convenience store Retailing In the UK, also termed a corner shop. A shop, often a family business, usually in a residential neighbourhood, stocking a great variety of commodities, from food and cigarettes to books and small items of hardware. Such a shop is open seven days a week, from very early to very late; hence the term convenience. Photography, Reprographics Converging verticals An optical effect produced when a camera lens is directed away from a parallel position. Verticals appear to converge and meet in the distance. Marketing, Sales Conversion The turning of an enquiry or response to an advertisement, or advertising campaign, into a sale. This is usually done during a follow-up by a salesperson or telephone call, or when the enquirer has been encouraged or persuaded to visit a retail outlet. The calculated extent of such conversions is termed conversion rate. Creative Conviction Part of the communication discipline, AIDCA, Attention, Interest, Desire, Conviction, Action. Its aim is to attract the attention and hold the interest of potential customers; get a decision in favour of your brand; and get the action you want. Essentially, you need to convince your reader, viewer or listener that: n n n n n n You have attracted her attention for a good reason. What you are telling her is truly in her self-interest. Your promise and benefits help her to fulfil an unsatisfied need. The desire you arouse will lead to that fulfilment. The action you are asking for will lead to it. That when she has taken it, her life will be improved – in terms of that unsatisfied need: – in her business life; – in her domestic life; – in her social life; – in her personal life; n You are offering this certainty on a reliable and permanent basis. See AIDA. 95
Slide 103: COOPERATIVE Cooperative Retailing A group of retailers, having set up a wholesaling or buying operation for its members, and benefiting from economies of scale. This measure enables participating individual retailers to compete with supermarkets. Some groups have their own brand name, such as Spar and Wavy Line, displayed on store facias and product packaging. Advertising, Marketing, Retailing Cooperative advertising Advertising campaigns created and paid for by individual companies acting as a group. Also, where a national advertiser collaborates with local retailers or distributors. In this case, the national advertiser supplies the locals with preproduced advertising material for use in local media. Either the cost is shouldered entirely by the national advertiser, or shared with the locals. Often the cost of the space and airtime is the responsibility of the local outlets. Cooperative marketing Marketing, Retailing A scheme in which different companies in the same business collaborate to increase market activity for all participants in the scheme. Each participating company contributes money for advertising and public relations, and the product is promoted in generic terms. In the year 2000, for example, a cooperative campaign to promote fish ran on television and in the press. In former decades, milk was promoted by the Milk Marketing Board. This was heavily overlaid with politics, ran on a compulsory quota system, and was widely loathed by dairy farmers. However, it worked well and kept milk prices stable. Copy Advertising, Copywriting, Editorial, Public relations The text of a manuscript or typescript. Copy Print All the material to be printed in a newspaper, magazine, brochure or leaflet; including text, illustrations, graphics, halftones, ornaments and borders. See Hard copy, Manuscript, Print, Typescript. Copy briefing Advertising, Creative team work Structured instructions to a copywriter or creative team, setting out in detail the requirements of a campaign or piece of promotional material. The work done by the team is based on the briefing, and evaluated against it. Not only is it vital that the team understands the purpose of the campaign, it must also understand the psychological and promotional values to be used. The mechanics of the campaign are also given in the briefing. A good creative briefing not only ensures that the work will be done effectively, appropriately and efficiently. It enables the copywriter and the team to present their creative work with confidence. It also protects the creative team against unreasonable objections by account management (who would have produced the briefing in the first place). 96
Slide 104: COPYWRITER Copy claims Advertising, Consumer protection, Creative work Statements made in printed or broadcast media, describing the functions, benefits, values or merits of a product or service, or of a particular aspect of it. For example, claiming that a washing powder will make clothes smell as fresh as on the day they were bought; or that a hi-fi system will reproduce orchestral sounds with the utmost purity, clarity and fidelity; or that a financial consultation will guarantee profitable investment. In the UK, and increasingly in mainland Europe, every claim in advertising copy must be technically accurate and capable of substantiation. In Advertising Standards Authority terms, it must be legal, decent, honest and truthful. Misleading the consumer with spurious claims is a criminal offence. For the range of laws relating to this, see also Controls. See Advertising Standards Authority. Copy date Advertising production, Editorial, Public Relations The deadline by which the publisher must receive advertising or editorial copy. This usually also means copy ready for camera. See Camera-ready. Copy platform Advertising, Creative work, Marketing communications The main concept or theme of an advertising campaign or other material. A copy platform can be adapted in various ways, to suit the requirements of the media being used. A single platform can be tailored for advertisements, television and radio commercials, posters, brochures and sales presentations. Copyright Creative, Intellectual property The exclusive legal right to create, produce, perform or reproduce an original work, whether written or designed. The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 sets out the rights of creators of original material. Under the Act, copyright belongs to the creator for 70 years from the date of his or her death. A photographer now owns the copyright both of a negative and any print produced from it. In the Act, the concept of intellectual property is introduced. In a film or video, for example, the creator is entitled to a credit, and is protected against any alteration to the work that may detract from it. See Controls. Copy testing Advertising, Marketing communications A technique for testing the viability, comprehension, impact, branding quality and potential response of copy used in advertising. This is usually done using focus groups or consumer panels, under the supervision of a researcher. Copywriter Advertising, Creative personnel, Marketing communications, Public relations A writer specializing in creating concepts and writing advertising or other copy for marketing communications. Often also applied to a writer involved in public relations work, including news releases and house journals. 97
Slide 105: CORE STRATEGY Core strategy Business, Marketing planning The main elements of a marketing mix on which planning operations are based. Core strategy, and any changes in it, will affect all marketing operations, especially marketing communications. Complete reviews should be carried out periodically, and always after a change in the core strategy for a product or service. Corporate advertising Advertising, Corporate strategy and planning, Marketing communications Advertisement techniques designed to create, develop and maintain a company’s image and reputation in its markets. Emphasis is on the company, rather than its products and services, though these may be part of the corporate message and presentation. All media are used in corporate advertising. Corporate campaigns are at their most effective when media and message are coordinated, and combined with publicity activities. This needs careful control, especially when a number of outside specialists are employed. Corporate affairs Media relations, Publicity, Public relations Also termed public affairs. Public relations activities conducted by a company, corporation or organization at corporate level. These are aimed at, or relate to, other corporations, local and national government, foreign governments, the military, the company’s shareholders and supporters. Sometimes also at foreign corporations, particularly customers and suppliers, at highest management levels. Some public affairs activity may be aimed at or relate to pressure groups, especially where such groups interfere with or disrupt a company’s operations. Corporate culture Business, Public relations The values, attitudes, beliefs, conduct and practices of an organization, and the way it does day-to-day business. This inevitably carries over into the organization’s wider sphere of activity and influence. An organization’s corporate culture is often reflected in its mission statement (qv). Corporate identity Advertising, Business, Marketing, Public relations The tools and techniques through which an organization projects its personality and represents itself in the marketplace. Everything is carefully tailored to affect the way in which it is perceived. In ordinary circumstances, corporate identity is bound up in physical elements with which the organization allows itself to be identified. The most common are corporate logo and house colour, of which some of the best examples are Coca-Cola, IBM, The Economist, Virgin, McDonald’s and UPS. The UPS logo is a masterpiece of design; gold and brown convey service, quality and reliability, with the quiet confidence and competence one expects from true professionals. Other physical elements used to convey corporate identity include advertising, letterheads, staff uniforms, printed literature, vehicles, showroom design and product packaging. Less tangible, but equally important, is an organization’s public relations programme, promoting both the physical and the philosophical sides of its activities and personality. This includes customer care and after-sales service. 98
Slide 106: COST CENTRE Corporate image Advertising, Business, Marketing, Public relations How an organization is perceived by its public and market is its corporate image. Ideally, it is the effect produced by its corporate identity programme; the reverse side, if you like, of its corporate identity. If the corporate identity programme works as planned, it will influence and colour how the organization is judged by its customers when it comes to making decisions to buy. Image is all-important, for example, when an investor is considering buying shares in the company; possibly also when buying baked beans. Investors are, after all, ordinary consumers who watch television, listen to radio, read the press and purchase everyday products. Artwork, Desktop publishing, Typography, Word-processing Amendments made to text after proofing. Sometimes called alterations. Where the typesetter makes a mistake, he pays for the alteration. Where the originator or author makes the mistakes, these are called author’s corrections, and the author pays. Caveat: it often costs up to £50 to amend a proof, by even as little as a comma. See Alterations. Corrections Correlation Marketing research The quantitative or qualitative relationship between two sets of research data; for example, family size and disposable income, or car ownership and credit card use. Corridor traffic Exhibitions Also termed aisle traffic. The flow of visitors at an exhibition along a particular aisle and past a particular exhibitor’s stand. At established exhibitions, such as the Ideal Home, this traffic can be anticipated, based on that of previous years. This helps the exhibition stand sales and marketing team to determine the price of each stand. Packaging, Paper Corrugated fibreboard Board comprising sheets of fluted paper, stuck to a flat sheet or several sheets. The fluting provides strength in one direction, flexibility in the other, and enhanced protection for the contents of a package. Cost analysis Business, Marketing planning A technique for calculating the risk in the launch, re-launch or development of a product or service. It involves the assembly of all cost data involved in the operation, and putting them through a rigorous test against the expected benefits and profits. Cost centre Business, Marketing planning An accounting technique where the costs of marketing a particular product are assigned to that product. The product is the cost centre. On the other side of the operation, the product is also the profit centre. 99
Slide 107: COST-EFFECTIVENESS Cost-effectiveness Business, Marketing The degree to which a business project meets its financial objectives. Whether this is actually the case is a matter of business judgement, as much as an accounting calculation. This is because many marketers take unacceptable risks when planning or developing products and services. A 5 per cent risk of failure, for example, might be acceptable to many marketers, while a 75 per cent risk would be unacceptable. Other marketers may consider taking a 75 per cent risk, or higher; perfectly acceptable if they could gain an edge in the market. This is why many products fail within months of launch. Advertising, Marketing, Sales promotion Cost per enquiry The cost of an enquiry from an advertising campaign or, more usually, from a single advertisement in a campaign. It is usually calculated as an average of all enquiries received in a pre-determined timescale. Cost per thousand Media planning Also termed CPM, cost per mille. A technique providing a common base for comparing the circulation of publications. In calculating CPM circulation, the cost of an advertising unit is divided by the number of copies sold expressed in thousands. In the case of CPM readership, this does not use copies sold, but copies read, which can be substantially higher. An advertising unit is usually a display unit, such as a page, half-page or quarter-page. Cost profile Marketing planning The basis of calculating the total cost of a product to be marketed, in which all elements of the marketing mix are taken into account. Coupon Advertising, Creative, Sales promotion A response element in a press advertisement, brochure or catalogue page. Its main function is to give the customer or reader an opportunity to send for information, a sales call, a demonstration or a product. The coupon should be designed so that readers can fill in their requirements and personal details, then cut the coupon from the page and post it (mail it) to the advertiser. At first sight, this is quite a simple response device for building-in to an advertisement. In practice, it is usually the reason why the advertisement was created in the first place. Yet it is often so badly and inefficiently done, I’m not surprised that some advertisers are convinced that their advertising doesn’t work. David Ogilvy states that, to get the best results from coupons, you should write and design them like mini-advertisements. Excellent advice. Give every coupon a motivating headline, with a promise or a benefit in it. Include a couple of lines of motivating body copy. You need to show the reader what the product looks like; it needn’t take up much space – a thumbnail illustration will do. Even a tiny illustration can increase the response by a worthwhile amount. Then ask for action. How many coupons have you seen in the last three months that actually follow this important creative discipline? 100
Slide 108: CRCA Another problem with coupons is the information advertisers expect to get from them. When you decide to include a coupon in an advertisement, you should also estimate its value to your database. Any database is only as effective as the information it contains. Therefore, when using coupons to build a database, you need to consider the importance of the information you are asking your respondents for. Advertising, Creative, Sales promotion Coupon offer A coupon offering a discount on the price of a product, or some other benefit. When a product is being introduced or promoted, a coupon or voucher offering consumers a discount can encourage them to try the product. It can lead to longterm brand loyalty. Advertising Coverage The percentage of a market or target audience likely to see an advertisement or advertising campaign. Advertising, Publishing Cover date The date shown on the cover of a publication. Often, particularly in the case of full-colour monthlies, the publication is on the street well in advance of the cover date. It sometimes means, for example, that the April issue of a magazine is available on the first of March. Don’t forget that advertising copy dates are always correspondingly early. See Issue date. Cover price Publishing The retail price of a newspaper or magazine; the price printed on the cover or first outside page. CPT Media planning Initials for cost per thousand. The cost to the advertiser of reaching a thousand members of the target audience he is aiming at. This is one of the generally accepted bases for comparing one publication with others in the same field. Also termed CPM, cost per mille. CRCA Radio Commercial Radio Companies Association. In the UK, the trade association for independent commercial radio companies. It is voluntary, non-profit-making, incorporated as a company limited by guarantee; formed by the first radio companies when independent radio began in 1973. Formerly called AIRC, Association of Independent Radio Companies. CRCA enjoys the support of the radio industry; all but a handful of stations are members. It is funded by the subscriptions of its member radio companies, which share the cost of CRCA in proportion to their shares in the industry’s broadcasting revenue. 101
Slide 109: CRCA CRCA’s affairs are managed by a board of eight directors: the Association’s chairman and six other non-executive directors elected annually. In addition, one executive director, the director and chief executive, who manages the eight-person directorate. Industry forum: the CRCA board meets five times a year. There are also two general meetings of all member companies: the AGM in January and the Annual Congress in June or July. Reporting to the board are six standing committees: copyright, finance and general purposes, marketing, programming, research, and technical matters. There are also a number of specialist sub-committees. Representations: since 1984, CRCA has been active in representations to government, the Radio Authority (qv) and other bodies. CRCA had a significant input into the 1987 Green Paper, ‘Radio: Choices and Opportunities’, to the 1990 Broadcasting Act, which substantially de-regulated independent radio, and to the BBC Charter Review. Copyright: CRCA’s Copyright Committee negotiates on behalf of members with the principal music copyright bodies, the Performing Rights Society, the Mechanical Copyright Protection Society, and Phonographic Performance Ltd. With the aid of consultants, the Committee monitors copyright developments outside the UK, and lobbies European institutions and bodies such as the World Intellectual Property Organization. Marketing: CRCA’s Marketing Committee is the focal point for liaison between radio companies, national sales houses and the Radio Advertising Bureau. Audience research: radio audience research is conducted by RAJAR – Radio Joint Audience Research Ltd (qv). RAJAR is jointly owned by CRCA and the BBC, but all broadcasters contract with it direct. CRCA’s Research Committee monitors the performance of RAJAR on behalf of CRCA members, and formulates independent sector research policy that, after approval by the CRCA board, is taken forward to the various RAJAR committees by CRCA representatives, who are all members of the Research Committee. Copy clearance: the Radio Authority’s Code, and almost 60 acts of parliament, determine what can and cannot be said in radio advertisements. To protect advertisers and broadcasting stations, a central script clearance system is operated by the Broadcast Advertising Clearance Centre, on a basis agreed by CRCA. All stations contribute to the cost, and the Radio Authority collects the fees. Information and involvement: CRCA is the prime source of up-to-date information about all aspects of independent radio. Members’ requirements have priority and, in addition to swift response to enquiries, regular guidance. Enquiries are handled from the media, advertisers and agencies, financial analysts, other researchers, and people seeking careers in radio. Programming: CRCA’s Programming Committee liaises with the Radio Authority over programming issues, and develops network projects, which provide attractive programming and additional revenues for member stations. New members: new radio companies are eligible to join CRCA as soon as they are granted a licence by the Radio Authority. There is a small joining fee, and no 102
Slide 110: CREDIT further subscription is due until the company begins broadcasting. After that, members’ subscriptions relate direct to broadcasting revenue. The smallest companies – often those that find CRCA most valuable – therefore pay least. Creative department Advertising, Design, Public relations The department of an advertising or PR agency or consultancy devoted to producing concepts, copy and designs from marketing, advertising and PR briefings. Ideally, copywriters and art directors work as creative teams, with the objective of achieving the best results. In many agencies they work in isolation, though usually the results are just as good. Evaluating their work is not only a matter of comparing it with the brief they receive; it can also be seen in enquiries, orders and sales achieved. Advertising, Design, Public relations Creative group A team of agency creatives working on an account or group of accounts, under the supervision of a creative director or manager. This method of working often resolves problems of conflicting client interests within an agency. Creative hotshop Advertising, Design, Public relations A company, team or unit specializing in creative work, usually for print media and promotional literature. Such companies do not plan, buy or handle media. Creative strategy Advertising, Marketing, Public relations The overall objective of an advertising or PR campaign, based on a marketing brief. The interpretation of the objective is converted into advertising or PR campaigns or material by the creative department, based on the creative values demanded by the brief. Credibility Advertising, Public relations The degree to which claims made by an advertiser are accepted and believed by the target audiences at which campaigns are aimed. This should not be confused with credulity. People have been well educated by television, and can usually distinguish between true and exaggerated or misleading claims. If an advertiser persists with misleading claims penalties, and usually prosecution, follow. The true penalty, however, is applied by the public, who turn to other advertisers’ products, often permanently. See Advertising Standards Authority, ITC, Radio Authority. Credit Artwork, Film and video, Publishing A reference, usually a line of copy, showing the name of the individual or organization responsible for creating or supplying the material. The material to which it applies can be text, a graphic, a halftone illustration, photograph or artwork. 103
Slide 111: CREDIT NOTE Credit note Business, Retailing A document, usually a letter or standardized form, issued by a supplier to a customer. Its function is the acknowledgement and correction of an overpayment by the customer. Either the money is held by the supplier against future purchases, or added to the customer’s account. Credit sale Business, Retailing A sale using a credit arrangement. In short-term credit, as with low-cost consumer durables, the customer acquires the ownership of the goods at the time of the sale. With hire-purchase, the supplier or credit house owns the goods until the final payment. Crisis management Media relations, Public relations Techniques for identifying, investigating and analysing potential crises likely to affect a company or industry group. Plans are drawn up to handle, manage or cope with crises as they occur. Constant updating is required to ensure the effectiveness of crisis management. See Issues management. Business, Corporate communications, Public relations The creation of a detailed plan designed to cope with a variety of crises and issues likely to arise in future business activity. This is often seen as a function of public relations, but is actually a management responsibility. A whole range of ‘unpredictable’ critical scenarios can in fact be foreseen in a basic crisis management plan. Strikes, production and distribution problems, and their consequences, can be anticipated and planned for; the same for fire, flood, property damage and poor weather. There is a mass of software on the market available for this purpose. Public relations can present these situations in ways that minimize the severity of the problems and their consequences, and help the organization recover quickly. Crisis management planning Business, Marketing planning, Project management An organizational planning technique using diagrams, showing clear paths for resolving complex project activities. It breaks down an entire project into easily defined moves, and gives timing guides for each one. The ‘path’ is an unbroken line from the beginning of a project to its end, with individual activities shown leading from it. The path is termed critical because any deviation from it may result in running over time, increased cost and lower quality. A critical path analysis can be presented also in text-only form, with moves and timings given in columns. CRM Business, Internet business activity, Marketing Initials for customer relationship management (qv) and customer relationship marketing. Critical path analysis 104
Slide 112: CUMULATIVE REACH Cromalin Print, Production A proprietary dry proofing system, using coloured toners rather than inks. This is DuPont’s brand name for their process. 3M and Kodak also market dry proofing systems. See Press proof, Proof, Wet on wet. Crop Artwork, Photography, Reprographics To trim an illustration, transparency or photoprint. This is done physically on the drawing board, or electronically on computer screen. The objective is to cut off unwanted parts of the photograph, such as dustbins standing outside the front entrance of your new office or factory; or to improve the shape of the print; or to make it fit a column width. Basic cropping can sometimes be done during photography, but this usually needs to be finished in the darkroom or studio. Cross-head A type of subhead (qv). Cross-over testing Advertising, Media, Research Split run comparison testing of different advertisements, in different publications. The advertisements are initially inserted in the selected publications, then transposed in subsequent editions of the same publications. Cross-track site Outdoor advertising A poster site across a railway line, parallel with a platform and facing the passengers. Outdoor advertising Crown A poster size, 500 mm × 381 mm (20 in × 15 in), the basic dimension unit for larger-size posters. Larger posters, however, do not comprise sheets of crown size, but are scaled up from this dimensional basic unit. See Double crown. CRT Computing, Television Cathode ray tube. A fancy name for a computer screen or television monitor. This is a proper technical term used by manufacturers of oscilloscopes and early television equipment. Nowadays, in the mouths of end-users, it sounds a bit 19th century-ish, and pretentious. VDU (video display unit) is not much better. Computer screen is the term now generally used. CTP Initials for computer to plate (qv). Print, Production Copywriting, Creative, Desktop publishing, Editing, Typography, Word-processing Cumulative reach Advertising, Media research The total number of readers, viewers or listeners aware of a press advertisement or broadcast commercial in a fixed period. See Reach. 105
Slide 113: CURRENT DEMAND Current demand Business, Economics, Marketing The ability and readiness of consumers for a product or service to purchase, and to pay the current market price. Computing, Desktop publishing, Word-processing Cursor A flashing vertical or horizontal bar, rectangle or graphic device on a computer screen. This marks the current working position on-screen, and the place where text will be inserted when you type. You can move it by using the keyboard or mouse. Manufacturing, Marketing Custom-built The US term for tailor-made. A product or service made or adapted to a specification provided by a customer. Customer Marketing, Retailing, Sales One of the parties to a legally binding contract to purchase goods or services. This is the pedantic definition. In popular terms, a customer is an organization or individual making a purchase. It is also used to refer to one considering a purchase, or being approached to make a purchase. Any person walking into a shop is usually referred to as a customer, whether she makes a purchase or not. This may sound confusing, but all these terms are in current use. The use of the word consumer may be less precise, but it includes the ultimate user, who may not have made the purchase. Be cautious. Customer care Marketing, Retailing Ideally, a corporate concept that encourages staff, from chairman to floor staff, to consider the customer in every thought, procedure and action. This has developed into CRM, customer relationship management (qv), stimulated partly by the rise of marketing potential and activity on the Internet. Marketing, Marketing research, Retailing Customer profiling Classification into groups of a company’s customers, using categories broad enough for comparison with each other. From this, it should be possible to describe individual customers by their purchases, demographics, lifestyles and so on. Thus, owners of cars, property, dishwashers, bank accounts and mortgages, can be crossmatched with age, occupation, profession, disposable income, and a liking for expensive restaurants and foreign holidays. In the UK, due regard needs to be taken of the Data Protection Act. Customer care, Customer service, Marketing research, Retailing Individual records of a company’s customers. These cover the usual name, address and other basic demographic data; plus detailed information on enquiries, orders and purchases, with dates and locations; satisfaction or dissatisfaction with products and services. Due regard needs to be taken of the UK Data Protection Act. 106 Customer records
Slide 114: CUT PRICING Business, E-commerce, Internet marketing activity, Marketing Usually abbreviated to CRM. A concept of the mid-1990s. A CRM company, Impiric, has produced the following definition: An ongoing process for maximizing customer value over time, through the application of a mix of integrated customer management tools and techniques. CRM covers the strategy and process of co-ordinating all points of contact with customers by integrating people, process and technology from the customer point of view, resulting in longer-term customer value, profitability and loyalty.* Customer relationship management CRM did not spring fully armed from the brow of Zeus. It has evolved from a number of working concepts: after-sales service, customer care, enterprise relationship marketing, customer relationship marketing and so on. It began to dawn on marketers that the cost of making a sale from a new customer was six times more than getting an existing one to buy something. This was finally confirmed by a Royal Mail survey in 1999. Marketers now know that information technology can produce some stunningly effective database marketing; and that they actually have access to individual customers! It gives them the ability to capture, manipulate and use information about consumers – particularly their own. Essentially, CRM is the deployment of a variety of related marketing tools, techniques and activities. It is dedicated to the identification of named individual consumers; creating a commercial relationship with them; managing the relationship for their mutual benefit, and company profitability, over a long period. Customer service department Marketing, Retailing Formerly known as the company customer complaints department, it deals with issues of customer satisfaction as well as day-to-day complaints. It is often a company’s most frequent and active interface with its customers, having a vital public relations job to do. For this reason, special training is advised for customer service staff. Cut-out A photograph or illustration with the background cut away. Artwork Cut pricing Retailing A retailing technique for stimulating trade and increasing store turnover; usually a temporary measure. Shoppers are, in theory, induced by lower prices to purchase more products, or purchase more frequently. Tactics, timing and pricing need to be carefully calculated, since consumers who normally buy small quantities do this either out of habit or need. You may not, for example, persuade consumers to buy more toothpaste than they may habitually use. People already cleaning their teeth *Thanks to Tess Harris, former Chairman of the Chartered Institute of Marketing, Central London. 107
Slide 115: CUTTING COPY three times a day will not be stimulated by cut pricing into doing it four times. If they do buy more toothpaste at reduced prices, it will have to be stored at home; future purchases may be smaller as a result. Unless cut pricing is applied to fastmoving or speedily used consumer goods, it may fail; the retailer’s gain in turnover may be lost in lower profits. Supermarkets frequently use loss leaders (qv) during slack periods, or when new products have not taken off as rapidly as predicted. Film, Video Cutting copy The first version of a film or television commercial, or of an entertainment film, video or documentary. Cyan Advertising, Print One of the subtractive primary colours used in four-colour process printing. The others are magenta, yellow and black. See Black, Cromalin, CYMK, Magenta, Pantone, Primary colours, Process colours, Yellow. Cyclical trade Marketing, Product management, Retailing, Sales Upturns and downturns in the sales movement of products and services. These often follow global or national economic booms and recessions. Careful and expert study and analysis of such movements over a long period may help with production and sales forecasting. CYMK Print The four colours used in four-colour process printing: cyan, magenta, yellow and black. The initial K us used to denote black, presumably to avoid confusion with blue and brown. See Primary colours. Cynicism Marketing philosophy A marketing concept stating that the function of creativity in marketing is to arrest the customer’s mind long enough to extract money from it. All business techniques are designed to move money from one person’s pocket to another’s without resorting to violence. 108
Slide 116: Dd DAGMAR Advertising planning, Advertising research, Marketing planning An acronym used in marketing and advertising planning and practice: Defining Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results. This popular concept was developed for advertising modelling in a 1961 book, and academic papers, by Russell Colley. It is still valid and respected, mainly because it is based on common sense, and because it works. The main thrust of the concept is that ‘all commercial communications that weigh on the ultimate objective of a sale must carry a prospect through four levels of understanding’. The ‘prospect’ is the prospective customer for a product or service. The four criteria applied to making a successful sale to the future customer are that he must: n n n n first be aware of the existence of a brand or company; have a comprehension of what the product is and what it will do for him; arrive at a mental suspicion or conviction to buy the product; stir himself to action. The usefulness of this model lies in its orientation towards the future customer’s needs and desires. It also enables the product’s marketing and advertising teams to prepare a research programme for forthcoming promotional campaigns, and research them pre-, mid- and post-campaign. Bearing in mind that there are several distinct categories of prospect and customer, and that some will not purchase immediately, the model has limitations. As you will find elsewhere in this Dictionary, customers fall into three basic types: new customers, existing customers and brand-switchers. Advertising messages to these types need to be different in each case. A single message to all categories will almost certainly be deficient, ineffective or wasteful, or all three. Consider the following: New customers Never used or heard of the brand Basic message: try it; you may like it Technique: attractive demonstrations, endorsements, inducements, discounts 109
Slide 117: DAMPENING SYSTEM Existing customers Already use the brand Basic message: use more of it Technique: attractive ideas for increased product use Brand-switchers Habitually use another brand Message: you will like this brand; it will do more for you than the one you are using Technique: attractive demonstrations of customer satisfaction, endorsements, inducements, discounts Dampening system Print technology On litho presses, the mechanism for transferring dampening solution to the plate during printing. Damping Paper, Print technology The process of applying water to the printing plate on a litho press. The term applies also to the application of moisture to paper in preparation for a subsequent process, such as supercalendering. Dandy roll Marketing communications, Paper manufacture A roll or cylinder at the wet end of a paper-making machine, in contact with the upper surface of the forming paper web. The roll is covered with a woven wire, which makes wove or laid effects on the paper texture. It often carries a design for a watermark, such as a brand, logo or trademark. In high quality papers, such as Conqueror or Distinction, the watermark is the manufacturer’s own brand. Otherwise, it can be a brand name, design or logo commissioned by a client, used as an in-built marketing communication. Data Computing, Research, Statistics A collection of facts and figures. In computing, data is used for the electronic processing and manipulation of the collected material, and its conversion into useful information. In statistics, data are based on research and manipulated for analysis. Any space here devoted to whether data is a singular, plural or collective noun is futile. Computing, Marketing, Research Data analysis The collation and study of facts and figures in a data file, whether on computer or paper. In marketing, one objective of such study is to enable marketing or product management teams to weigh up the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats to their products, services or brands before committing money to campaigns. 110
Slide 118: DEALER AIDS Database Computing, Information technology, Marketing research A computer file containing information and facts on a specific subject, eg customers’ names, job titles, addresses and other useful stuff. Usually organized for fast access, retrieval and manipulation. In information handling, database usually refers to a bibliographic file; a statistical file is usually referred to as a databank. Data capture Computing Data downloaded into a computer from another source, for storage, processing and manipulation. Packaging, Retailing Date coding A technique for marking dates on consumer packaging. Coding usually indicates the latest date by which a product may be displayed, sold, used or eaten. See Best before. Data-sheet Marketing, Product management A document prepared by a marketing or product management department, showing the performance record of a product or service in terms of enquiries, orders, sales and profits. Other data can be included, eg market share. DC Media planning and buying Initials for a double column in a newspaper or magazine, indicated in advertisement rate cards and space orders. When booking media insertions, it is always best to avoid initials and spell out the requirements in full. Confusion can arise when using initials; DC, for example, also stands for double crown, a poster size. Deadline Advertising, Public relations, Publishing The date or time planned and set for the completion of a job, or for the submission of copy to a newspaper, magazine or printer. Dead matter Advertising, Print media, Publishing Any creative, production, proofed or printed material superseded by more up-todate or advanced material. To avoid expensive and time-wasting confusion, dead matter is best removed and archived until the job is completed and paid for. After that, it can be destroyed. Dealer Distribution, Retailing A term imported from the USA; usually applied to a seller and distributor of products in business-to-business transactions; but increasingly used in consumer retailing. In the same way, ‘shop’ is becoming ‘store’; words like mall and precinct are gaining ground. In marketing jargon, retailer and retail outlet are synonymous. Dealer aids Product management, Retailing, Sales force activity A wide range of material, usually printed, supplied by manufacturers to retailers, to help in persuading consumers to buy at the point of sale. Material includes: 111
Slide 119: DEALER AUDIT banners, brochures, dump-bins, leaflets, leaflet dispensers, mobiles, posters, shelf pelmets, showcards, stickers, wire baskets and cages. Cheaper items are often supplied free; often, retailers are asked to share the cost with the supplier. In-store video material is popular for selling cars, furniture, white goods and other expensive products. Dealer audit Product management, Research, Retailing Regular research into sales at retail outlets. This is designed to reveal ongoing data on sales by product, price, sales volume, stock, dates and times over a specified period. It enables product management teams to compare one period or season with another, one area with another, one brand with another, the effectiveness of brand promotions, and other essentials for successful brand and product management. Dealer incentive Product management, Retailing An inducement by manufacturers and suppliers to retailers, to encourage them to stock and sell a product, and to promote it actively. This can vary from extra discounts and freebies, to foreign holidays. Banking, Retailing Debit card A plastic card issued by a bank or other financial institution. It enables a customer to buy goods and services, without using cash, from businesses that accept the card. Using electronic funds transfer (EFT), a participating retailer debits the customer’s bank account direct. In the case of HSBC (Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation) for example, its cards can be used to withdraw cash from its self-service machines in the UK, machines operated by certain other financial institutions in the UK and from all HSBC Group self-service machines abroad. Its debit cards can also be used in card-operated machines with retailers and other suppliers, and/or as a cheque guarantee (in the UK only), and/or as a cheque guarantee. If a customer issues a cheque in the UK using a debit card, HSBC guarantees to pay the cheque if the amount of the cheque does not exceed the limit shown on the card. When withdrawing cash from machines, the customer needs to key in a personal identification number (PIN), which the bank supplies. Cash withdrawals in the UK are normally debited from a customer’s bank account on the same day, or the next working day. Debris Print Paper dust that finds it way on to a litho printing plate or offset blanket. If allowed to accumulate, debris can smudge or otherwise damage the printed image while the press is rolling. De-bug Computing Computer software programs often contain errors, known as bugs. De-bugging is the art of seeking, identifying and eliminating bugs. Computers are excellent pieces 112
Slide 120: DEFINITION of equipment, usually very reliable. It is very nearly always software that gives computers a bad reputation among end-users. Deck Copywriting A US term for copy, such as a subhead, between a headline and a section of body copy. Paper, Print Deckle edge An uneven, ragged or feathery edge usually found with hand-made paper, or machine-made paper simulating the hand-made sort. A deckle is the frame determining the width of a wet paper sheet as it comes off the wire of a papermaking machine. Dedicated communication link Electronic communication, Information technology Two or more sites linked by telecommunication lines for their sole use. For example, where an advertiser, advertising agency, pre-press house and printer are linked in a private, dedicated network. No other users have access to the links. Databases, Direct marketing De-dupe De-duplication. Removing duplicate data from a database or mailing list, to make it more efficient and effective. It is estimated that a dormant or unused database deteriorates at up to 10 per cent a month. The same applies to directory entries; a directory is out of date on the day it is published. It is estimated that the monthly deterioration of mailing lists is: gone-aways deceased movers duplicates 5% 2% 7% 8% Deep-etched Art, Print The treatment of a printing plate, in which some of the printing area is removed. This ultimately leaves areas of unprinted white space, usually for the brightest of highlights, for example. Deep-etched plate Print, Production In litho plate-making, a positive-working plate used for long runs, where the inked areas are slightly recessed below the surface. Definition Computers, Photography, Print, Television The sharpness or resolution of a photoprint or printed image, and its computer and television screen equivalent. See Dot, Pixel, Resolution. 113
Slide 121: DE-INKING De-inking Paper, Print The removal of ink and mechanical impurities from previously printed paper before it is recycled. This is necessary in order to preserve the integrity of the newly recycled paper and the purity of its colour. Delayed response Advertising, Direct marketing, Marketing The effect of an advertising or marketing campaign, where the expected response takes longer than planned for. A direct mailshot, for example, under normal conditions, may produce a response within three days. Weather, strikes, elections, holidays and other manifestations may delay the response. Marketing Deliberate obsolescence A technique for ensuring the uptake of an old product or service in a new guise. The technique often involves a re-launch together with appropriate promotional activity. Sometimes this is essential as a product approaches the zenith in its life cycle. Often, technical innovation forces manufacturers to re-launch. Sometimes, as with computer and telecoms marketing, rapid change in a highly competitive marketplace drives deliberate obsolescence. However, it is a disease that feeds on itself, and any gain disappears in the loss, especially to consumers. Campaign planning, Marketing research, Research, Statistics The division and classification of populations and target audiences, by age, sex, occupation, social status and other characteristics. Demonstration Exhibitions, Marketing, Retailing, Sales promotion Displaying a product and demonstrating its functions and benefits. Often done in retail outlets and at exhibitions, by live demonstrators or presenters, followed by encouragement to buy on the spot. Department stores, among others, often use continuous video demonstrations. Some are interactive, enabling customers to select particular features they would like to see; or colours. sizes, variations and prices. Densitometer Print An instrument for checking and measuring the colour and tone density of printing inks. This is used in proofing, and on print runs, to control inking levels. Density Photography, Plate-making, Print The depth, darkness or tonal value of a printed image, or part of an image. Density Typography The amount and tonal quality of a typeset area. Type set solid, and with minimal word- and letter-spacing can look very dense. Where it becomes actually unreadable, the term can also be a quality ascribed to the typographer who made it so. Demographics 114
Slide 122: DESK RESEARCH Depreciation Business, Marketing, Planning The loss in value of a piece of equipment or other asset during its working life, calculated over a period of time. The calculation is done as part of an accountancy technique, which sets the loss off against a company’s tax bill. More important, it helps a marketing team to predict a product’s future profits and losses; equipment inevitably needs to be replaced over time. Marketing research, Research Depth interviewing Low-key, informal interrogation of interviewees during one-to-one or group discussions. The researcher works to a pre-arranged plan with specific objectives. One of these is to elicit from the respondents information that may not emerge during straightforward interviewing. Photography Depth of field The area surrounding the true point of focus, where the image appears sharp. To produce a sharp image, a lens needs to be focused at a certain point in front of it. In front of and behind this point, the image continues sharp, depending on how far the subject is from the lens. Outside these areas, the image becomes blurred as it goes further and further out of focus. The area of acceptable sharpness on either side of the focal point is the depth of field. Descender Typography That part of a type character that descends below the base-line (qv); especially the lower case characters g, j, p, q and y. In some fonts, the figures 3, 5, 7 and 9 fall below the base-line. Some exotic and fancy typefaces have other descending characters, depending on the whim of the designer. See Ascender. Designer products Business, Fashion, Marketing Usually, often deliberately, confused with exclusivity. In its honest and purest definition, a designer product is one designed exclusively for a manufacturer or distributor by a well-known and respected specialist. The product bears an exclusive label and an appropriately high price. The quantity produced is limited; the quality expected to be of the highest. In today’s reality, however, products often are dubbed ‘designer’ when they are of indifferent and mediocre quality; and produced in huge numbers for mass-consumer markets. Desk research Marketing research, Research A form of research using existing information from the Web, company data and sources, directories, magazines and other published sources. This is not to say that desk research is inferior to field research. It is highly valued because of the speed with which it can be obtained. Often, desk research is a prelude to field research. Bear in mind that some forms of desk-research sources, such as directories, go out of date quickly; they are often so on the day they are published. 115
Slide 123: DEVELOPER Developer Photography, Reprographics A chemical agent and process used for rendering photographic images visible following exposure. Developer Print In litho plate-making, the chemical material used for removing unexposed photographic emulsion. Diary research Marketing, Marketing research, Retailing A consumer research technique, in which groups of respondents record information day to day in an organized way, pre-determined by the research organization. It is used to gather information on purchases of products and services, reading habits, television viewing, radio listening and other daily or frequent consumer activities. Diazo A non-silver-based coating and process for contact printing. Photography Die-cuttability Paper, Print An evaluation of the suitability of paper and board for die cutting (qv) into blanks of a pre-planned design or shape. See Blind embossing, Embossing. Die cutting Packaging, Print The technique, using sharpened steel rules, for cutting printed sheets into shapes for labels, mailshots, containers and boxes. This can be carried out either on rotary or flat-bed machines. Rotary die cutting is usually carried out in line with printing. Die stamping Print An intaglio printing process, using pressure, from lettering engraved into copper or steel plates. The die is the engraved plate. The printed results are usually of exceptionally high quality, density and sharpness. See Blind embossing, Embossing, Thermography. Differential pricing Marketing, Retailing A pricing policy in which the same product is sold to different groups of consumers at different prices. Viking, a well-known international office supplies company, uses differential pricing very successfully. Customers are classified according to whether they are frequent or infrequent purchasers, and whether they buy highor low-value products. Using the Web, and several different catalogues, Viking is able to target such customers by their purchasing track records with the company, and price offerings accordingly. Differential pricing of products in Viking’s catalogues is made possible by the use of digital printing. 116
Slide 124: DIMENSIONAL STABILITY Diffusion transfer Photography, Plate-making A one-stop photographic processing system, such as Polaroid. This comprises a photographic emulsion on which a negative is produced, and a receiver sheet or plate on which a positive of the image is transferred during processing. Communications, Computing, Photography, Print, Radio, Television Any data, image or calculation that can be accessed, processed and stored electronically, and later retrieved, processed and re-formed. The term describes the use of discrete pulses, signals or values to represent data in computer graphics, telecommunications systems, fax transmissions and word processors. Until recently, the term was mostly applied to the processing of images by computer. It is now current in radio and television transmission and reception, print and photography. A digital clock is one that shows the time by digits, rather than by the use of revolving hands. Digital asset management Advertising, Art, Creative, Design, Writing The archiving and indexing of content for re-use in print or electronic media. This is now a common practice, as publishers recognize the long-term value of copyright material. Digital image Computer graphics, Design, Information technology Any computer or photographic image that has been encoded electronically. This applies both to graphics and type. Digital image processing Design, Graphics, Information technology, Marketing communications A range of techniques used to generate, process and reproduce images by computer. Processing includes image enhancement and colour correction. Digital printing Print processes The printing process in which an image is applied to the substrate direct from a digital file, rather than from film and plates. Information technology enables variable data to be included in a print run. This means that each sheet, page or publication on such a run can contain different information, depending on the content of the customer’s database. In a catalogue, for example, different prices can be offered to customers, based on their frequency of purchase or loyalty to the advertiser. Dimensional stability Paper, Print The ability of a paper to retain its proper shape and dimensions despite changes in moisture content. In a print shop or paper store, paper can come under the influence Digital 117
Slide 125: DIMINISHING RETURNS of variations in the surrounding atmosphere. It can also be subject to variations in physical and mechanical stress during printing, especially at high speeds. Diminishing returns Business, Economics, Marketing A theory in economics, proposing that increasing the input of one factor, beyond a certain limit, may not produce a corresponding output of another. For example, increased investment in a product by, say, 10 per cent, may produce a return of 10 per cent or more. However, beyond a certain point, increased investment may actually produce a diminished return; further investment may eventually become uneconomical. In crude marketing terms, fishing in a lake may produce a good catch over a certain period. Beyond this, the fish caught will be smaller and leaner, and not worth the extra effort. Directive European law, Marketing In the European Union, a ruling binding on member states. It usually includes both the procedure to be adopted to meet the requirements of the directive, the results expected to be achieved by it, and the time-scale by which it must be implemented. One of the best-known, possibly anecdotal, EU directives concerns the growing and marketing of cucumbers. The directive requires all cucumbers marketed in the Union to be straight, not curved. How this is to be achieved, and what happens to cucumbers found to be curved, is not mentioned. Direct mail Advertising, Sales promotion A form of advertising or sales promotion in which selling is done by sending promotional material through post. In other words, selling by post. Do not confuse this with mail order, which is buying by post. Commercials, Film, Television, Video Director The individual in charge of turning a script into a production. He may write or participate in writing the script, and often supervises the editing. Direct response Direct marketing Advertising, and other promotional activities, in which a measurable response is obtained direct from the target audience. The media used includes press, television, radio, mail, telephone, fax, and the Internet. Direct marketing by Internet is now firmly established, especially in the USA, and increasingly in Europe. Direct sales Direct marketing, Distribution The sale of products and services direct from manufacturer to customer. No retailer, wholesaler, agent, broker or other intermediary is involved. Direct to plate Print, Production Also known as computer to plate, and CTP. A production technique in which printing plates are imaged direct from a digital file, rather than from film. At a time when printers and their customers demand shorter lead times, increased 118
Slide 126: DISPLAY productivity and reasonable costs, CTP helps to achieve these objectives. There are a number of other substantial advantages. After a plate has been produced, the production data can be archived by the system’s software. This can be retrieved at any time, and another copy made of the plate. With some CTP production systems, the operator can view the layout of the plate, and the design and colour of the image requested in a preview file displayed on screen. Print Dirty proof A press proof with a large number of errors. Where errors are the printer’s, they are the printer’s responsibility, and he pays for corrections. Where they are the author’s, the author may be asked to pay. Typographical errors are termed typos; printers’ textual errors are termed literals. Retailing Discount house A distributor of products conducting an actual or near cash and carry operation, with products substantially discounted. Such distributors are used by retailers, large companies with high turnaround of consumables. Products can range from grocery and catering products to office equipment. In return for low prices, the distributor may not offer credit or delivery services. Often, customers pay an annual membership subscription; in the UK, Costco and Makro are two discount houses operating in this way. Discrimination testing Marketing research A research procedure for providing qualitative and quantitative evidence of consumer differentiation for products and services. Disparaging copy Advertising Advertising copy that puts a competitor’s product in a bad light by using unfavourable comparisons. This technique is frowned upon by self-respecting advertisers, who consider their own best points capable of selling a product, proposal or argument. It is also in breach of the British Codes of Advertising and Sales Promotion. These state that comparisons should be clear and fair, and that comparisons should not be selected in a way that gives the advertiser an artificial advantage. As to denigration, the Codes stipulate that advertisers should not unfairly attack or discredit other businesses or their products. The only acceptable use of another business’s broken or defaced products in advertisements is in the illustration of comparative tests. The source, nature and results of these tests should be clear. See Knocking copy. Display Press advertising Newspaper and magazine advertising sold and bought by the unit of a page. Units are fractions of a page, eg whole page, half, quarter, eighth, sixteenth and so on. Other units of press advertising are classified or straight paper-typeset lineage; and semi-display, which is a form of classified with bold type, borders, rules, logos 119
Slide 127: DISPLAY and, sometimes, colour. In Europe, semi-display advertising is sold by the columncentimetre. In the United States, it is called display classified and sold by the column-inch. Display Retailing The display of merchandise within a store or showroom, or in display windows. See Classified. Computer graphics, Desktop publishing, Typography, Word-processing An image on a computer screen highlighted to call attention to it. This is done by the use of bright bars or other areas, some of which flash or blink. In DTP and WP, highlighting is done by a procedure termed dragging (qv), used for taking items to different positions on screen. Display outer Distribution, Retailing A bulk container for protecting products during transportation. Its other important function is the display of advertising, promotional or corporate messages. Smaller containers decorated in this way are used to display and dispense products at the point of sale, usually on counters and shelves. Display packaging Retailing A technique for packaging single items at the point of sale, while also identifying and promoting the product. Lawnmowers, microwave ovens, electric drills and similar high-value items are often packaged in this way. Design, Typesetting, Typography Display type Type sizes 14pt and larger. Used mainly for headlines in press advertisements and print. Smaller sizes are termed body type. Dissolve Film, Slide presentations, Television, Video Also termed cross-fade. An optical technique giving gradual transition from one scene to another. When changing from one scene or shot to the next, the first is faded out at the same time as the second is faded in. With slide presentations, two or more projectors are used, the dissolves controlled by computer. In this way, a kind of animation can be achieved; this is slow, but it can be made to look very interesting. See Fade, Wipe. Distribute and print Print planning and buying, Production A production department instruction to forward a file electronically to a printer, then print the job at the point of delivery. Display highlight 120
Slide 128: DOCTOR Distribution channels Distribution, Marketing, Retailing The various methods of getting products from where they are manufactured or stored, to the consumer or end-user. From farm gate to dinner plate, so to speak. Methods include wholesaling, retailing, direct marketing and mail order. Distribution network Distribution, Retailing, Wholesaling A manufacturer’s network of approved or authorized dealers. Networks are usually divided up among the dealers, locally, regionally and nationally, depending on the manufacturer’s needs. Usually the dealers carry out all the basic functions of dealership, such as servicing, spares stock-holding and warranty operations. Marketing, Retailing, Wholesaling Distributor A company dealing in one specified manufacturer’s products, or a range of related products by several manufacturers. Car dealers, for example, acting as main distributors for specified automotive brands may also carry accessories related to those brands. Usually the distributor will have purchased the products for re-sale. rather than selling on commission. Distributor brand Retailing, Wholesaling David Ogilvy once wrote that when they cut him open after death, they would find ‘Own label’ engraved on his heart.* Dedicated to manufacturers’ national and international brands, he earned his living by promoting them. His reference was to retailers’ own brands and labels, designed, produced and marketed by supermarkets, department and chain stores, and others. Such brands are usually competitively priced, in direct competition with national brands, and usually occupy shelves adjacent to them. No real harm seems to come to either from this practice. In the late 1990s Sainsbury, a UK national supermarket chain, introduced its own dark, sweet, carbonated drink in a red and gold can, branding it as ‘Classic Cola’. It was sited in bays right next to Coke. Coca-Cola, irritated by this direct affront, decided to withdraw from the chain. However, after a few months Coke was back on the shelves. This seems to indicate that conflicting brands can coexist profitably side by side. Curiously, during the hiatus, Sainsbury left empty the shelves formerly occupied by Coke, probably anticipating their return. Doctor Flexography, Gravure, Print On gravure presses, a sprung, stainless steel blade pressed against the up-running surface of the engraved printing cylinder. This removes excess ink, and any foreign matter, before the image is transferred to the paper. The pressure of the blade is finely judged; too much, and the doctor could scrape away the surface of the cylinder – a costly error; too little, and the surplus ink may smudge the printed image. On flexographic presses, a steel blade or rubber roller is applied to an anilox roll, to control the amount of ink on the anilox. See Anilox. *Confessions of an Advertising Man, Atheneum, New York, 1962. 121
Slide 129: DOCUMENTARY Documentary Cinema, Television, Video A presentation or programme made using facts obtained by research. Documentaries are used in public relations, often in the form of sponsored promotions and training programmes. Documentaries are sometimes described as ‘the creative treatment of reality’. Techniques range from straight reporting to those used for fiction. In fact, all the cinematic techniques used for entertainment are used in documentaries, including: special visual effects, animation, cut-aways, voice-overs, fades, wipes and flashbacks. Marketing planning Dog In the Boston Matrix (qv), a product at the end of its productive marketing life, making no contribution either to the company’s product portfolio or to its profits. The function of the Matrix technique is the estimation of the value of products during their life cycles. Products in the portfolio can then be treated appropriately, with effort devoted to maintaining or increasing their share of the market, retaining or dumping them. In theory, even a dog can be useful; for example, in helping maintain public awareness of a company in its marketplace. The value may be in the logo or packaging, rather than in the high competitiveness and profitability of the product itself. As always, this is a matter for the mature judgement of the marketing team. Film, Television, Video Dolly A hand-propelled trolley for a film or television camera, used in studios and on location. The dolly is equipped with devices to ensure smooth movement and action, and to prevent shake and shudder during camera operation. Domain name E-commerce, Internet, World Wide Web An individual, company or organization name used as an address for a Web site; eg www.cim.co.uk, used by the Chartered Institute of Marketing. ‘CIM’ is the identifying corporate part of the domain name. The whole address is usually termed a URL, universal resource locator. Of course, it could be called a Web site address, but this would be too easy and rob the technology of some of its mystique. Eventually, all URLs will be referred to in this way. Domination Advertising, Marketing, Sales promotion A technique for dominating the marketplace for a while, by a high concentration of advertising and sales promotion in a particular area of it. This calls for business courage and astuteness; with few exceptions, no product or service is likely to dominate its market forever. However, at the right time and with enough money, a product can increase its market share and frighten the competition, and stay in the lead until a competitor comes up with something similar. Door to door Sales force effort, Sales promotion A technique for selling consumer products and services cost-effectively in concentrated residential areas. The salespeople call on householders and make the sales pitch there and then on the doorstep. The technique is useful where a product 122
Slide 130: DOT GAIN demonstration is called for, or where an explanation is necessary. Archetypal sales pitches are those for vacuum cleaners, encyclopedias and insurance policies. The same can be done in business areas where companies are tightly packed together; the City of London, for example. The high cost of door-to-door selling is offset by paying the salespeople low salaries and high commission. Sales promotion material is distributed in selected areas, using minimum effort to gain, hopefully, maximum sales. In the UK, legislation restricts door-to-door selling activity. Dot Plate-making, Print, Production The smallest reproducible element of a halftone (qv). See Definition, Pixel, Resolution. Dot for dot Plate-making, Print, Production A technique for reproducing a halftone illustration from an image that has already been screened. For example, a picture of your chairman is needed for an advertisement. You have lost the most recent negative and prints, and the only suitable picture you have is one already published in your house magazine. You can’t organize another photo-shoot, because the chairman is on holiday in the Caribbean. You cut out the chairman’s picture from your house magazine, and have it reproduced on film, dot for dot, by your production house or plate-maker. Each dot on the magazine halftone is individually reproduced on the film. Usually, little quality is lost by this method. However, don’t enlarge or reduce the image by more than 10 per cent, or serious loss of quality, as well as some bizarre distortions, may result. Before attempting this with colour halftones, consult your production house. See Halftone. Print, Production Dot gain A printer’s nightmare. In printing halftones (qv), dots may increase in size once deposited on the substrate, especially paper. This can produce a result different from the one planned by the creative and artwork teams, usually darker tones or colours. There are two ways this can occur, often at the same time. First, the printed dot is absorbed into the paper and dries, or is ‘cured’, as a crust on the surface. The thickness of the crust, though microscopic, casts a minute shadow on the paper. Second, the portion of the printed dot below the surface of the substrate may bleed, or spread, giving a further increase in dot size. Multiplied up by the screen density, with up to 6,400 dots to the square centimetre, the printed result is different tones and colours from the ones planned for. Pre-press techniques should therefore take the effect of dot gain into account. Dot gain can be controlled. In theory, FM screening (qv) should increase the problems of dot gain. The dots are smaller than those obtained by conventional screening. However, although distributed at random on the plate, all the FM dots have the same surface area. This means that the level of gain is the same throughout the range of tones. Corrections can be fed back to the scanner and the settings adjusted to compensate for dot gain. See FM screening, Halftone. 123
Slide 131: DOUBLE BUMP Double bump Print The application of two layers of ink to an image, to achieve more intense colour or greater opacity. Double column Editorial, Press advertising A double column in a newspaper or magazine, usually indicated in advertisement rate cards and space orders. Also referred to as DC. However, when booking media insertions, it is best to avoid initials and spell out the requirements in full. Confusion can arise when using initials; DC, for example, also stands for double crown, a poster size. Double crown Outdoor advertising An ancient, but still-used, name for the basic size of paper used for posters. Crown is 500 cm high × 381 cm wide (20 in high × 15 in wide); and double crown 762 mm high × 508 mm (30 in × 20 in). Double exposure Film, Photography, Video Superimposing one shot on another. In film and video photography, this is done either by winding the film or tape back and taking a second exposure, or in an optical printer or editing suite. Double-page spread Advertising, Print, Publishing Two facing pages in the centre of a publication, magazine or brochure, usually printed on a single sheet. This gives somewhat more scope for design on the page, since the headline and illustration can be treated as a single unit, and do not need to be split into two separate sections. On two single, facing pages, the pages are often separated by a gutter in the centre. Splitting a headline sometimes results in uneven alignment on the spread, and can also read with a somewhat bizarre effect. See Spread. Download Computing, Information technology, Internet A technique used in Internet activities. The transfer of electronic data from one computer to another, or from a remote computer to a storage medium such as diskette or tape. Doing it the other way round is termed uploading. Downmarket Marketing, Retailing A segment of a market in which prices, especially lowest prices, have greatest influence on buyer behaviour, decision-making and purchasing habits. Down-stroke Typography In a type character, a heavy downward stroke. This is equivalent to the downward stroke of a pen when producing characters by hand. 124
Slide 132: DRIVE TIME Down time Print Non-productive time when a printing press or paper-making machine is being cleaned or maintained. Printers and paper-makers earn their living only when their machines are rolling, and they like to keep it that way. DPI Information technology, Print Initials for dots per inch. When this term is used in the context of halftone, semitone and process printing, it refers to the density or frequency of dots within an image. The greater the number of dots per inch, the finer and sharper the printed image. DPI is also used in computer printer specifications. Advertising, Print, Publishing DPS Abbreviation for double-page spread (qv). There are caveats throughout the Dictionary on the dangers of using initials in media and production instructions. Draft Art, Creative, Desktop publishing, Publishing, Word-processing A piece of raw copy, which may be edited, amended, modified, added to; possibly even mutilated. A final draft is one on which all modifications and mutilations have been made, and is ready for typesetting. Used as a verb: to write or prepare a piece of copy, usually in the form of a typescript, ready for editing. Computing, Desktop publishing, Word-processing Dragging Highlighting characters, words, lines and blocks of type. These can then be deleted, moved or copied, or changed in style or attribution, eg from roman to italic. Dragging is usually done by using a mouse to place the cursor at the start of the drag, holding down one of the buttons, then dragging up or down. Releasing the button stops the dragging. Most DTP and WP programs allow you to drag via the keyboard; however, mouse dragging is the simplest way of doing it. Advertising, Media planning and buying, Promotion, Sales promotion A campaign using modest spaces over a long period. The idea is to insinuate a promotional message gently and steadily into the minds of target audiences, instead of bulldozing it. This technique is essential where continuity of message is needed. Educational campaigns are often conducted in this way; political ideas are often disseminated using this technique. It is a useful technique to consider where promotional budgets are modest. Drip advertising Drive time Advertising, Media buying, Radio advertising and broadcasting A period during weekdays when people are driving home from work. Main drive time is 4.30 pm to 7.30 pm. There is also a useful drive-time period between 7.30 am and 9 am. It is important to bear in mind that telephone numbers and Web site addresses are distracting, and difficult or impossible to absorb while driving. On the other hand, easy-to-remember words are useful, especially when constituting part of free telephone numbers and Web site addresses. The advertiser’s objective, 125
Slide 133: DRUM of course, is to lodge messages in the targets’ minds, so that they act on them after reaching their destinations. Drum Distribution, Retailing A cylindrical package holding day-to-day household consumables such as cornflour and cocoa, sweets or table salt. Open-top drums are often used in-store, containing a variety of small items displayed higgledy-piggledy to encourage impulse purchase. In this case, the drums are termed dump-bins. Larger drums are used for shipping bulk products such as cooking oil. Dry goods Non-perishable products sold in wholesale and retail outlets. Retailing Artwork Dry mounting Mounting a photoprint or illustration on to special board, using a heat-set adhesive. The technique is one of sandwiching an adhesive membrane between the print and the mounting board, and applying an electric iron to melt the adhesive. This often sets like concrete, and the only way to de-mount the print is to use a sharp knife. You may damage the print in the process. Given time, the adhesive will probably crack. Because of the disadvantages, the technique is not much used now in the marketing communications industry. The current favourites are: n Cow Gum rubber solution: a brilliant invention that allows you to reposition a print on the mounting board once you have laid it down. You can usually do this safely up to 10 minutes later. You can de-mount a print without damaging it, even years later by applying, sparingly and progressively, a solvent such as lighter fuel. You can also dampen the edges and back of the print with the solvent, and lift it off gently. n Spray mount: a rubber-based adhesive applied from an aerosol can. n Tack-adhesive: a method of coating the back of a print with small dots of light adhesive. As with Cow Gum, you can reposition the print for quite a while after mounting it. You may not always de-mount as easily as with a solvent; read the instructions on the pack. Dry offset Print, Printing processes Also known as indirect letterpress. A letterpress process that uses the offset technique, but using a relief plate. The image to be printed is first transferred to a rubber blanket cylinder, which in turn transfers it to the paper. Unlike conventional litho, no water fountain is used; hence ‘dry’. See Litho, Offset. Dry proofing Pre-press, Print, Production Proofing a print job without using printing plates or a printing press. Several excellent methods of dry proofing are available, faster and more economical than 126
Slide 134: DUMP-BIN wet proofing. Du Pont’s Cromalin being one of the popular techniques currently in use. Proofing is done by laying down toners on a special substrate, a coated paper dedicated to the purpose. Printers earn their living when their presses are rolling, and lose money when they are idle. Wet proofing – using a press for proofing – is slow, wasteful, expensive and unnecessary. It means shutting down a press for setting up the proofing. However, wet proofing can be done on a special proofing press, a cut-down version of the full-size production press. See Cromalin, Progressive proof, Proof, Wet proof. Commercials, Film, Television, Video Dry run A studio rehearsal, using a closed circuit system, or without a camera. Dry transfer lettering Artwork, Creative, Studio techniques, Typography A hand-applied lettering system for the studio drawing board. In the absence of desktop publishing, it is quite good for headlining. It uses characters pre-printed on a sheet of translucent, coated paper. The individual characters are self-adhering. You position each character wherever you want it on the page – with precision – then rub it down with the blunt end of a pen, the back of a spoon, or a special instrument. You may find the spoon more effective than the special instrument. The main disadvantage with this system is that you can’t reposition the character once you have rubbed it down. If you have messed up the positioning, all you can do is scrape the letter off with a scalpel, or lift it off with self-adhesive tape and start again. Better still, give the job to a professional desktop publishing operator. Film, Television, Video Dubbing The blending of speech, music and effects into a single sound track, and the adding of sound to mute film or videotape. Sound includes voice, music and sound-effects, and mixtures of these techniques. Dubbing also refers to the substitution of a foreign language dialogue or commentary for the original. Dummy Creative, Design, Print An unprinted, preliminary version of a piece of print or packaging, with the design in place, folded to represent the finished article. Useful for discussions and presentations, where modifications might be made. Though dummies can look rough and ready, computer-aided design and desktop publishing enable a dummy to look almost as realistic as the printed piece. The use of standard colours, and correct paper grammage, can add realism, and production values, to the presentation. Dump-bin Merchandising, Retailing, Sales promotion A large cardboard cylinder containing and displaying consumer products, sited in retail outlets where it will encourage rapid take-up by customers. The items are deliberately displayed higgledy-piggledy in the bin, to avoid any symmetry that might discourage customers from grabbing them when passing. 127
Slide 135: DUPLICATE Duplicate Artwork, Film, Video An exact copy of an original print, illustration, drawing, transparency, film, video and other production material. The popular abbreviation is dupe. The term is also applied to hot-metal printing, where printing blocks are duplicated by electrotyping or casting. Duplication Advertising, Media planning and buying The degree to which the circulation, readership or audience of one medium overlaps others. Duplication can be either negative or positive, depending on whether the media buyer wants lean or fat coverage of a particular geographical area or target audience. Durables Marketing, Retailing A term popularly applied to infrequently purchased, high-unit-cost products, such as washing machines, refrigerators and furniture. In consumer retailing, they are referred to as consumer durables; in business-to-business, capital goods. Dustbin research Marketing research A field research technique where panels of consumers are given containers in which they are asked to keep their discarded packages. The contents are collected at regular intervals, and analysed by researchers. This gives continuous information on purchasing frequency, stores, brands, prices and packaging. When the panels are scientifically selected, and carry out their functions conscientiously, the technique can produce very accurate research results. The findings can be related to advertising and other promotional effort. Information technology, Video DVD Initials for digital versatile disc, or digital video disc. A digital storage format capable of storing very substantial amounts of information, particularly for video and multimedia applications. At the time of writing this edition, the storage capacity of a 120 mm (5 in), single-sided, single layer DVD is 4.7 gigabytes. This represents about 133 minutes of video play. DVE Film, Video Initials for digital video effects, an instruction in film and video scripts. Visual effects include wipes, fades, dissolves, spirals, splits, stretches, blinds, boxing, chequerboarding, morphing, crawls, flashes, peeking, stripping and zooming. 128
Slide 136: Ee Early adopters Marketing One of the adopter categories used in product marketing. A term for consumers who take up a new product during one of its early life cycle stages. First to take up a new product are termed: n n n n n innovators, the first 2.5 per cent of all adopters; early adopters are next (13.5 per cent); then early majority (34 per cent); late majority (34 per cent); finally, laggards (16 per cent). These groups are usually also defined by demographics, including age, sex, location, education, occupation and social grade. These are generalized groupings, but when used as guidelines are usually accurate enough for marketers to make decisions on targeting for new or re-launched products. Earpieces Advertising, Media buying, Publishing Small advertising spaces on the front page of a newspaper, positioned either side of the main masthead. Mostly used in broadsheets (qv). They function usefully as reminders, and make offers which can be taken up immediately by using a highlighted telephone number, e-mail or Web site address. E-commerce Business, Communications, Internet, Marketing, Retailing Electronic commerce. Business transactions carried out via the Internet, using software that automates them. Typical of e-commerce activity is electronic shopping, including product selection, purchase, invoicing and payment. Financial transactions are made by credit card, for which a high level of security is necessary. Economic life Manufacturing, Marketing, Production The viable or profitable working life of a product, usually one of high unit cost, or a piece of capital or production equipment. Such equipment arrives at a point in time when it is no longer economically viable. Conditions for this can vary from unusually heavy maintenance costs and high cost of component replacement, to high insurance premiums; all of which can provide reasons for replacement. The cost of running equipment at the end of its economic life may be reflected in the price of the end-product. 129
Slide 137: ECONOMIC ORDER LEVEL Economic order level Marketing, Re-selling, Retailing The point at which orders for the supply of a product for production, processing or re-sale is economically viable, and can produce a worthwhile profit for the supplier. Marketing Economic pricing The price of a product arrived at through taking into account every direct and indirect cost. This includes costs involved in conceiving it, designing, prototyping, manufacturing, warehousing, selling and distributing it. Also includes marketing activities and their administration; marketing communications such as advertising, packaging, public relations, sales promotion and after-sales service. All of which, of course, must be anticipated and planned for. A similar regime must be adopted when marketing a service. Economics, Manufacturing, Marketing, Production, Re-selling, Retailing A costing system based on the optimistic marketing philosophy that the more you buy of a product, the less it should cost. This usually works in practice, since market forces can compel a manufacturer to reduce the unit price of a product on a sliding scale. It depends on how much you buy at a particular time. Ideally, any savings made on these deals are passed on to the consumer, wholly or in part, through the distribution chain. In the world of aggressively competitive marketing, this usually happens. Sometimes it does not, and one of the companies in the chain keeps the savings. This may be legal, but it is certainly not noble. As it is said, in this life you do not get what you deserve; you get what you negotiate. The true price of consumer goods can be estimated when the retailing companies declare their seasonal sales. Economies of scale Economy size Packaging, Retailing An extra-large pack created for the purpose of stimulating or increasing demand for a product. The price of the pack is often pitched at that normally paid for a standard pack; or slightly higher. This is usually a temporary measure, sometimes also regional, where the brand is under competitive assault. ECU Film, Television, Video Extreme close-up. An instruction within a script. When you can see the individual hairs of an actor’s eyelashes, it’s an ECU. Editing Advertising, Copywriting, Creative, Editorial, Public relations Making changes to a piece of copy, augmenting, improving or condensing it; preparing it for press. In unskilled hands, this often means also mutilating it in the process. The term also includes adapting a piece of copy for different media. News releases often need considerable editing before appearing in a newspaper or magazine. Copy written for newspaper or house magazine editorial use would need to be completely rewritten for an advertisement or a piece of print on the same theme. 130
Slide 138: EDITORIAL ADVERTISING Editing Film, Video Assembling and collating film or video material, manipulating, pacing and shaping it to create a finished presentation. This includes arranging the length of shots and cutting them precisely, so that the finished result portrays the facts and spirit of the script. The editor uses a high order of skill, experience and judgement in controlling the length and pace of each shot and scene, so that the finished film flows seamlessly from beginning to end. The editor strives to produce impact and rhythm not explicit in the written word or immediately apparent in the first prints or rushes. Print, Publishing Edition A specific issue of a publication, distributed at a specified place and time. The place and time are usually displayed on the front page, and generally also throughout the publication. For example, an edition of the London Evening Standard displays its date, time, edition, serial number and price on its front page. There is also a codeword for the time of day it is issued; for example, ‘Mid-day’, or ‘Final’. Inside pages carry a running head showing the name of the publication, and page numbers. Radio Times publishes a number of regional editions, each displaying the name of the region alongside the information already mentioned. Editor Press, Print, Publishing, Radio, Television A professional responsible for preparing the work of others for publication or broadcasting. In press media, the editor has total responsibility for what is published; plus many other responsibilities such as hiring and firing. Editor Film, Video The professional responsible for collating filmed material, shaping it to form a presentation that portrays the facts and spirit of the script. Her skill in arranging the length of shots and precise cuts can produce impact, pace and rhythm not explicit in the script, or immediately apparent in the first prints. Editorial Publishing The text of a newspaper or magazine, news, features and comment, created and produced by its journalists. The term is sometimes used to describe leading articles written by the editor and her team, covering and commenting on major issues of the moment. The non-advertising content on television is usually referred to as programming. Advertising Editorial advertising Advertising written and designed to resemble editorial. Also termed advertisement promotions or advertorials. This is an effective marketing technique, especially when the advertorial is in the style of the publication in which it appears. There are certain rules governing this type of advertising. In particular, the British Codes of Advertising and Sales Promotion (BCASP) stipulate that advertorials should be designed and presented in such a way that it is clear that they are advertisements. 131
Slide 139: EDITORIAL MENTION The words ‘Advertisement Feature’, or ‘Advertisement’ must appear at the head of the presentation. When considering creating an advertisement in the editorial style of a publication, it is prudent to get permission or approval from the editor; better still, get the advertisement director to get it for you. Editorial mention Press relations, Public relations Information on products, services and companies appearing in editorial, usually from copy or contact by public relations specialists. This is not a form of advertising (though that is what it eventually amounts to), but is entirely at the discretion of the editor. There is no guarantee when it will appear, or that it ever will. It will run only if the editor considers it a good story, or part of a story, of genuine and intense interest to readers. Effective demand Economics, Marketing The desire, readiness and financial ability of customers to acquire a product or service, and to pay the price asked for it. Effects Film, Radio, Video Sound-effects, such as traffic, ticking clocks, gunshots and storms. In scripts, this is usually abbreviated to FX. In film- and video-making, virtually all effects are added during the post-production stages. Egyptian Composition, Desktop publishing, Typesetting, Typography A range of slab serif typefaces, such as Cairo, Karnak, Rockwell, and the rather fancier Playbill and Ghost Town. Electrostatic plates Reprographics Plates for high speed laser printing, using zinc oxide, organic photo-conductor or cadmium sulphide coatings. Elliptical dots Pre-press, Print, Production Also termed chain dots. Elongated dots used in halftone photography, which give improved gradation of tones, particularly in middle tones and vignettes. Em Copywriting, Design, Printing, Typography A unit of measurement based on the space occupied by a capital M in the 12pt size of a typeface. The length of a line of type is often indicated by the number of ems it takes up. Line length is now also measured in millimetres; in the USA, in inches. Business, Communications, Information technology, Internet, Marketing communications Shorthand for electronic mail: communication of messages and computer files between individual users’ computers on the Internet, via an independent central computer – a server. While e-mail is no real substitute for letters and conventional correspondence, it has several characteristics specific to the computer age: 132 E-mail
Slide 140: EMBOSSING n It is immediate; though delays are frequent, often because of equipment problems. n One message can be distributed to a large number of destinations at the same time. This facility is used constantly by companies engaged in the distribution of news releases. n The medium encourages brevity; conventionally, e-mail messages are short and to the point. n More complicated and sophisticated material, including graphics, can be electronically attached to it. n It can be replied to, and the reply received, almost at once, which helps fast decision-making. There is a downside to the speed made possible by e-mail; you can receive hundreds of e-mails every day, all of which may need to be considered and acted on. Parkinson’s Law definitely rules here (the notion that work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion). Embargo Editorial practice, Marketing communications, Public relations, Publishing A time constraint on the publication of information made available in a news release. In fact, it is more of a request by the organization issuing the release, than an order to be obeyed. An editor is not obliged to respect the request. But if he does not, he is unlikely to receive important news from the organization in future, possibly robbing him of a good and timely story. It is a matter of good relationships between an organization and its media contacts. The embargo consists of the word ‘Embargo’, or ‘Embargoed until. . .’ plus a date and time, printed at the top of a news release. It appears before the heading, in a position that cannot be overlooked. Embargo Exporting, Importing, International trade A ban on goods being imported into a country; often for political reasons, or for the protection of that country’s own products and industries. This usually amounts to the same thing. Embargoes can be initiated by governments of importing countries, or by those whose companies are doing the exporting. Embossed finish Print Paper with a raised or depressed surface resembling cloth, wood, leather or other textures. Embossing Print Impressing an image into paper or board from the back, to raise the image’s surface. The raised image is printed. Where the raised impression is unprinted, this is termed blind embossing. See Blind embossing, Die stamping, Relief printing, Thermography. 133
Slide 141: EM DASH Em dash Copywriting, Design, Desktop publishing, Print, Typography A long printed dash, the width of an em. Do not confuse this with the hyphen, which is shorter and has a different semantic function. Advertising, Copywriting, Creative, Marketing communications The basis of an advertising message having strong emotional character. Fundraising advertising run by charitable organizations is often like this. Emotional appeals are often mixed with factual, logical and rational arguments, to make them more effective. Emotional appeal Emulsion side Photography The side of a film coated with silver halide emulsion. This should face the lens during exposure. Emulsion side Plate-making, Pre-press, Print, Production, Publishing In plate-making practice, the side of a film in intimate contact with the plate. Publications accepting film rather than artwork may specify either right reading emulsion side down, or right reading emulsion side up, depending on their individual plate-making and production requirements. This means that, in both cases, the copy reproduces correctly on the press. En Copywriting, Design, Desktop publishing, Print, Typography Half the width of an em (qv). Enclosure Direct mail, Direct marketing, Mailshots An additional item enclosed as part of a mailshot. This may be a piece of print such as a brochure or reply card, a photoprint, a product sample or some other object in the envelope, in support of the main promotional item. The main item is often a sales letter. Encoding Direct mail, Print Characters printed using ink containing iron, which can be recognized by magnetic ink character recognition systems (MICR). This is found on cheques (bank checks) and other security documents, and often on reply cards enclosed in mailshots, using the characters for keying. Copywriting, Design, Desktop publishing, Print, Typography A short printed dash, the width of an en character. Endorsement Advertising, Marketing communications, Public relations A statement by a personality or celebrity, showing a preference for a product or service being advertised or promoted. In press advertising and print, the endorsing celebrity is usually shown and named. In television advertising, the endorser is En dash 134
Slide 142: ESCALATOR CARDS often the main presenter, sometimes actually speaking the promotional copy, either to camera or as a voice-over. It follows that an endorsing celebrity should be known to the target audience, or at least famous for some activity connected with the product. Bear in mind that today, even with virtual saturation of news and gossip by the media, some members of the public may not recognize your endorser. Advertising, Marketing, Public relations End user The actual user of a product, as distinct from its purchaser or specifier. A computer system, for example, may be recommended or specified by a creative manager, approved by a managing director, signed off by an office manager and paid for by a finance director. When the machine arrives on your desk and you switch it on, you are the end user. Some markets are not nearly as straightforward as this. The pharmaceutical market, for example, is particularly complex. As a patient, you are the end user of a medicine, but you don’t specify, approve or purchase it. The pharmacist stocks the product, but has no choice as to its distribution. The doctor does specify the product, but neither handles nor sells it. It follows that careful marketing planning is called for here, especially as far as the promotional message is concerned. Markets for products aimed at children are complicated, but in a different way. The child is the end user, and often specifies the product. The parent examines the product, determines its suitability, sometimes consults another parent, approves and pays. Enlargement Photography, Reprographics Popularly referred to as a blow-up. A print made from a negative, blown up to an unusually large size. Business development Enterprise zone A piece of land or real estate dedicated to the setting up and development of businesses. In the European Union, conditions applying to such zones are preferential, offered to entrepreneurs as inducements to transfer to the areas. The inducements include tax breaks, inexpensive or interest-free loans and other financial assistance, professional advice and business counselling. In the UK, such inducements come from local and national government, and from the European Union. Equilibrium price Marketing The price of a product arrived at when the demand for the product is the same as its supply. This does not usually last for long, and the price rises or falls in line with movement in the marketplace. Escalator cards Outdoor advertising On the London Underground and urban rail transportation systems throughout Europe, small advertising posters displayed on the walls of its escalators (moving stairs). 135
Slide 143: ESPARTO Esparto Paper, Print A printing and writing paper made from, or containing substantial quantities of, esparto grass. This is a long-fibre material, giving excellent bulk to the paper, and a satisfying ‘crackle’. Established brand Advertising, Marketing communications, Retailing A brand well enough known in its markets, and often elsewhere, that constant introduction and explanation is unnecessary. The best current examples include Coke, Pepsi, the BBC, CNN, Microsoft, Virgin, Jaguar, Rolls-Royce and Toyota. Estimate Advertising, Creative, Print, Production, Public relations The costing of a job, prepared in advance by a printer, production house, advertising agency, photographer or other supplier. Estimates are not normally binding; in the UK, quotations are, so be careful. See Origination. E-tailing Business, Communications, Internet, Marketing, Retailing Electronic retailing. Retail transactions carried out via the Internet, using software that automates them. Typical e-commerce activities include electronic shopping, product selection, purchase, invoicing and payment. Financial transactions are made by credit card, store or debit card, for which a high level of security is necessary. Efficient though e-tailing may be, the downside is the physical delivery of the goods, which might not be as efficient. Etching Photoengraving, Plate-making, Pre-press, Print, Production Producing an image on a printing plate by chemical or electrolytic action. Ethernet Electronic communication, Information technology A proprietary local area network, together with its products and technical specifications. It was designed in collaboration with the Digital Equipment Corporation and Intel. Ethical advertising Advertising, Marketing communications, Pharmaceuticals Advertising by suppliers of medicines and other treatments prescribed exclusively by qualified medical practitioners. Such advertising is not aimed at the general public, but at clinicians, doctors and pharmacists. Pharmaceutical products marketed to the public are termed proprietaries. Both types of advertising are subject to their own licensing terms and codes of practice. Eurodollar Business, International trade The US dollar is described in this way when held by banks in Europe, or by European companies, or when used as a trading currency in Europe. Excess demand Economics, Manufacturing, Marketing A market condition in which demand for a product exceeds the ability of suppliers to produce it. In this climate, prices tend to rise. 136
Slide 144: EXPENSE-TO-SALES RATIO Excess supply Economics, Manufacturing, Marketing The reverse market condition to excess demand, in which prices tend to fall. Exchange rate Currency transactions, International marketing The level of value at which one country’s currency can be exchanged for another. In today’s volatile markets for currency and equities, the rate changes virtually every day. In the 1980s, the pound sterling hovered very narrowly around $2.40. At the time of writing this edition, it varies from $1.60 to $1.40. Some years ago, the value of the pound fell almost to a dollar. Vast fortunes have been made, and still can be made, from cashing in on the difference between exchange rates. Journalism, Media relations, Public relations Exclusive A major news story or interview, offered exclusively to, or acquired exclusively by, a newspaper, magazine, television or radio station, is termed an exclusive. Among journalists this is also referred to as a scoop, especially where a newspaper or broadcast channel gets an exclusive after having pursued it aggressively. The terms apply also to photographic material. Exhibition Advertising, Marketing communications A venue at which products and services or works of art are put on show, either for business transactions or inspection and enjoyment. They are popularly referred to as shows; in the USA, expositions. Exhibitions vary greatly, both in size and content. Mini-exhibitions, usually local or regional, are aimed at local business, trade and technical audiences. They are organized by companies specializing in such activities, and feature a small number of related exhibitors. Each exhibitor sends invitations to its customers, clients and prospects, together with free tickets; or gets the organizer to do it. Manufacturers, distributors and service suppliers often organize their own private mini-exhibitions, sending invitations to a highly focused list. At the other end of the scale, there are huge trade exhibitions, such as Hanover; and the Farnborough and Paris air shows. In the UK, exhibitions aimed at the general public include the Ideal Home Exhibition and the Motor Show. Expanded Desktop publishing, Typesetting, Typography A type of a width greater than regular, standard or normal. Marketing planning Expense-to-profit ratio The ratio of a company’s expenditure on marketing operations to its profits from them. Expense-to-sales ratio Marketing planning The ratio of marketing expenditure to revenue from sales. This is one of a company’s financial measures for controlling its expenditure, aimed at achieving maximum profit from marketing operations. It also needs to employ techniques for calculating its expense-to-profit ratio. 137
Slide 145: EXPLODED VIEW Artwork, Computer-aided design, Design, Desktop publishing, Photography An illustration of an object, such as a piece of equipment, showing how its components relate to each other. The illustration is complete in itself, and in proper perspective, showing its components separated, usually ‘floating’, or with sections cut away to show what is underneath. Advertising, Marketing communications, Media, Propaganda, Public relations The amount of time to which readers, viewers and listeners are given opportunities to see and hear advertising, editorial and other messages. As an example, in the UK the Radio Authority has a number of standards for measuring audience exposure: Exposure n weekly reach – the number in thousands or as a percentage of the UK/area adult Exploded view population who listen to a station for at least five minutes in the course of an average week; n average hours – the total hours of listening to a station during the course of a week: – per head, across the total adult population of the UK/area; – per listener, across all those listening to the station for at least five minutes; n total hours – the overall number of hours of adult listening to a station in the UK/area in an average week; n share of listening – the percentage of total listening time accounted for by a station in the UK/area in an average week. Exposure Photography, Plate-making, Reprographics In photographic processes, the step during which light produces an image on a light-sensitive coating. The term also refers to the amount of light allowed to reach the sensitive material. Extended Desktop publishing, Typesetting, Typography A wider version of a roman or standard typeface. Also termed expanded. See Condensed. Extended guarantee Business, Distribution, Manufacturing, Marketing, Retailing An extra guarantee period, usually paid for by the customer, during which the terms of the original guarantee are honoured and can be enforced. If a customer wants an extended guarantee, the extension is usually added to the original at the time of purchase. Extranet Electronic communications, Information technology, Marketing communications An internal network available to specified external users. Extranets are used mainly for teleworking and data exchange among different organizations that wish 138
Slide 146: E-ZINE to keep the content private among members of the network. They also enable staff working away from the office to keep in touch with it and with each other. In marketing communications, extranets exist between advertisers and suppliers such as printers and research organizations, where the frequency and density of the traffic justifies the expense. Since extranets are essentially intranets connected to the public Internet, security measures are essential for protection against hackers and unauthorized users. Ex-works Distribution, Manufacturing, Marketing The condition or status of a product as it leaves the factory. The ex-works price of a product is its basic price to customers, before distribution costs have been added. Other costs usually added include packaging, bulk crating, warehousing and insurance. Eye-movement research Editorial, Press advertising, Research Laboratory techniques for determining the way readers look at newspaper and magazine pages, particularly advertising material. The reader taking part in the tests is seated in front of a page of advertising. A special camera records the amount of time the reader spends looking at various elements on the page, and the sequence in which this happens. The main problem with this research lies in the analysis and interpretation of the findings, and their subsequent application to advertisement design. E-zine Corporate communications, Marketing communications, Public relations, Publishing An electronically distributed magazine. A magazine created and produced electronically, and distributed via the Internet or corporate intranet. Many house journals are produced and distributed in this way. The main advantages include fast distribution speed at low cost or virtually no cost; and that no printer is involved. Many company e-zines are produced in-house, either by company personnel or by outside specialists. 139
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Slide 148: Ff Face Desktop publishing, Typesetting, Typography, Word-processing Shorthand term for typeface or alphabetical character; the name given to the design of a particular typeface. Times Roman, for example, is a typeface. Sometimes the term is used to refer to a typographical family to which a typeface belongs. Facia Exhibitions, Retailing A banner or board above an advertiser’s stand at an exhibition. Normally this features only the exhibitor’s name, logo and stand number; sometimes also the theme of the stand and its campaign slogan. The term also applies to a display board over a shop front. Facility visits Media relations, Public relations As a function of media relations, companies invite journalists to visit their production, storage and distribution facilities. The objective is to give the visitors enough information and help for them to produce features about the organization visited. Usually, food and drink are provided, as well as photo opportunities. Media planning and buying, Press advertising Facing matter An instruction in a media purchase order to a publisher’s advertisement department, to position an advertisement directly opposite a specified editorial page. Some publishers accept this instruction without the firm guarantee of a particular page. An insertion facing matter is usually more expensive than one placed ‘run of paper’ – anywhere in the publication at the publisher’s discretion. Factor Business A company that takes over the responsibility for settling the invoices of a client, usually for a fee or a percentage of the value of the invoices. The factor undertakes credit control, collects from the client’s debtors, and also takes the risk. Some factoring organizations pursue reluctant debtors into court. Cinema, Television, Video Fade Gradually fading out a picture, to end up with a black or blank screen. See Dissolve, Wipe. Advertising, Sales promotion False claim A feature or benefit mentioned or described in an advertisement, which later proves to be false or misleading. It can also apply to claims that are simply 141
Slide 149: FAMILY inaccurate. Advertising of this kind is tightly regulated by the Advertising Standards Authority and the British Codes of Advertising and Sales Promotion (qv). Persistent breaches of the Codes can lead to the media’s outlawing of the advertiser, and possible prosecution. Family Desktop publishing, Typography, Word-processing A typeface (qv) with specific, identifiable characteristics running throughout its range. Members of the family have attributes related to the base design. Typographical attributes include: bold, semi-bold and demi-bold; condensed; expanded; extra bold; hairline; heavy; italic; light and extra light; medium; regular; roman; shadow and outline; thin; ultra. Family brand Marketing A brand, identifying a range of products or services, usually expressed as a name, word, symbol, logo, graphic or trademark. Looking at the brand, a consumer or prospective customer should be able to identify immediately the family or parent company. In the mind of the observer, a strong family brand helps to transfer the attributes of the parent to the individual product. Attributes such as innovative design, reliability, high quality, long working life, excellent after-sales service, noquibble guarantees and warranties, can be implied in this way. Companies successfully using the family brand approach include Dyson, Virgin, Sony, Canon, Bosch, the BBC and Hewlett-Packard. Fast-moving consumer goods Marketing, Retailing Usually referred to as FMCG. Consumer products, mostly of low cost, which the consumer buys frequently and uses almost immediately. This includes the wide variety of high turnover household and other domestic products. The ordinary consumer seems not to care over-much about brands, being concerned more about price and availability. One exception is tobacco products, which, despite high price and adverse publicity, still retain a great deal of brand loyalty. Fat face Desktop publishing, Typesetting, Typography, Word-processing A heavyweight version of a typeface, often with wide contrast in the visual weight of its thick and thin strokes. Sometimes used instead of the term ultra. See Face, Font. Fax Preference Service (FPS) Controls, Marketing The Fax Preference Service, set up in the UK by the Direct Marketing Association (UK) Limited (DMA), was originally formed in 1997. It was a voluntary selfregulatory mechanism to enable consumers to opt out of receiving unsolicited sales and marketing faxes at home. Following the adoption of the Telecommunications Data Protection Directive by the European Parliament in 1997, the Department of Trade & Industry (DTI) and the Office of Telecommunications (OFTEL) entered into a public consultation period. This resulted in the Telecommunications (Data Protection and Privacy) 142
Slide 150: FEEDBACK Regulations 1999. This came into force on 1 May 1999, and affects all tele- and fax-marketers in the UK. In February 1999, OFTEL issued an invitation to tender for the Management of the Telephone and Fax Opt-out Schemes. The DMA was awarded the contract to run the Telephone Preference Service (TPS) and Fax Preference Service (FPS). Under the Regulations it is unlawful to fax to individuals unless the faxing company has their prior consent. The term ‘individual’ in UK law includes consumers, sole traders and (except in Scotland), partnerships. The FPS does, however, enable businesses to register, with a central service, their objection to receiving direct marketing faxes. Fax-marketing companies receive the fax numbers of businesses that have registered by subscribing to the FPS. Feasibility study Marketing planning, Product development A research technique applied to the conception, creation and development of a product during the first stages of its life. Before any serious money is spent on commercialization, the product idea is subjected to rigorous tests: conceptual, academic, theoretical, technical, financial, economic, managerial and practical. Investing a little money at this early stage can prevent waste and loss of financial resources and management time and effort later, should the product not come up to expectations, or actually fail. Feature Media, Press relations, Public relations, Publishing A newspaper or magazine story or editorial piece, somewhat longer than a report, often of substantial length. Some photographic material may be included. The writer will cover the subject material in some depth, and incorporate her own views, comments, reflections and predictions. The writer will usually be a journalist on the staff of the newspaper or magazine, or else a freelance engaged for the particular assignment. In press relations practice, the organization being written about, or its PR consultancy, usually offers the opportunity as an exclusive. Feed Broadcasting, Radio, Television A live transmission from one broadcasting station relayed by land line or satellite to other stations for onward transmission. Often used to convey news or other unique events, where the receiving station has no personnel on the spot. A prior arrangement, and fee structure, is usually in existence. Feedback Advertising, Communications, Public relations Information, opinion, views and reactions fed back to an organization by a target audience, following an outgoing communication. Original communications include advertising, house journals, brochures, telephone contact, conferences, meetings, seminars, discussion groups and Internet activity. Feedback is usually asked for by the communicating organization. The term is often used in reference to letters to a newspaper or magazine from its readers. 143