Slide 1: Middle and South America Chapter 3—Part 2 Human Patterns and Current History
Slide 2: Human Patterns: Regional History  Where did the first people come from and when did they arrive?  Northeastern Asia  On foot and/or by ships close to shore along the Bering Strait, which at that time was covered in ice Reached the tip of South America around 13,000 yrs. ago  30,000+ to 14,000 years ago 
Slide 3: By 1492…   50 to 100 million people were living in Middle and South America Landscape alteration Irrigation systems, raised fields, terraced hillsides, paved walkways across swamps and mountains  Shifting cultivation (a.k.a. swidden/slash and burn)  Cities with sewers, aqueducts, and pyramids   Loss of species  Habitat alteration and hunting to extinction
Slide 4: The Aztecs     High central valley of Mexico Advanced technologies (city water and sewage) Advanced organization (marketing systems) All social classes lived better than Asian or European contemporaries
Slide 5: The Aztecs
Slide 6: Human Patterns: Regional History  The Incas Southern Colombia to northern Chile/Argentina (predominantly in the Andean highlands)  Cooler temps = less disease  Equatorial = longer growing season  Most efficiently managed empire in the world  Hierarchy of control with family units at the base  Cooperative and reciprocal labor to build roads and cities   Advanced agricultural technologies  Terracing, irrigation, experimental agriculture, development of staple crops
Slide 7: The Incas
Slide 8: The Incas
Slide 9: Human Patterns: Regional History  The Mayan Civilization     The Yucatan Peninsula and a large portion of southwestern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador High population density Culturally vibrant—Similar to Inca and Aztec civilizations due to cultural exchange Improved upon borrowed culture traits   The only fully-developed written language of the period Made countless mathematical, astronomical, artistic, and architectural advances  Many culturally-active Mayan groups still live in the region today
Slide 10: The Maya
Slide 11: The Maya
Slide 12: The Maya Today
Slide 13: The European Conquest of the Americas  1492—Columbus establishes a colony on Hispaniola (Haiti/Dominican Repub.) Expansion to nearby islands  Spain’s and Portugal’s expansion into Middle and South America  Why did it only take 40 years to conquer every major city in the region? 
Slide 14: The Spanish and the Portuguese  The Papal Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494  Kept the Spanish and the Portuguese from fighting over territory by dividing South America at the 46ºW long. line
Slide 15: The Spanish  Conquering the Aztecs      A small group of Spanish conquistadores destroyed a nation They failed at first, then smallpox won out The second time, they destroyed the capital city, Tenochtitlán (1521) and built Mexico City on the ruins Gold and silver flowed to Spain and the Philippine colony Slaves were imported from Africa to fill the labor shortage (the Portuguese later became the dominant suppliers) Similar to the Aztecs—disease won the day (or month, rather)   Conquering the Incas  Survivors were killed, enslaved, converted
Slide 16: Pizarro and Atahualpa: The Fall of the Incan Empire
Slide 17: Human Patterns: Regional History   Disease (smallpox, measles)  In 150 years, the population was 90% gone Military technology Horses, metallurgy, gunpowder, the wheel  Trickery: a good game of chess  The element of surprise  Capture the king and the hierarchy will fall apart  Read: Guns, Germs, and Steel by Jared Diamond
Slide 18: Diamond Asks: • Why didn’t Atahualpa instead try to conquer Spain? • Why did Atahualpa walk into the trap? • What were Spain’s specific advantages over the Incan empire? • Why was the exchange of nasty germs between the Americas and Europe so unequal? • Why didn’t Native American diseases instead decimate the Spanish invaders, spread back to Europe, and wipe out 95% of Europe’s population?
Slide 19: The Portuguese    Disease and technology won out A lack of urbanized, organized culture groups made colonization easier Focus on extracting mineral wealth from the highlands and setting up plantations along the coast
Slide 21: Global Exchange of Crops and Animals  Crops brought to Middle and South America from Europe, Africa and Asia  Rice, sugarcane, bananas, citrus, melons, onions, apples, wheat, barley, and oats Potatoes, sweet potatoes, manioc (cassava), beans, sunflower, corn, peanuts, cacao (chocolate), peppers, squash, pineapple, avocado, papaya, strawberries, vanilla, and tomatoes…and don’t forget tobacco and coca (cocaine)!  Crops brought back to Eurasia and Africa 
Slide 22: Population Patterns  Population by the numbers  560 million (2005)—double that of North America Uneven, no consistent relationship to landforms  Population Distribution 
Slide 24: Population Growth  Natural Increase    More people being born (and surviving) Rates declining, but will still have a large impact Gains in well-being reduced by the costs of supplying food, social services, and housing to more and more people—especially in growing urban areas
Slide 25: Demographic Transition
Slide 26: Demographic Transition Model
Slide 27: Stage One •High Death Rates •High Birth Rates •Children very important There are no longer any •Example: hunter-gatherer societies (pre-industrial) countries in Stage One!
Slide 28: Stage Two •Death rates fall •Better food production, disease control, etc. •Birth rates stay the same Laos •Population increases—high population growth •Early in industrialization phase
Slide 29: Stage Two • Better agricultural techniques • Better transportation • Improved public health •Cleaner water, improved sewage treatment, better hygiene More examples: Yemen, Afghanistan, Palestine, Bhutan, most of Sub-Saharan Africa
Slide 30: Stage Three • Death rates continue to decline • Birth rates start to rapidly decline • Overall decreasing population growth Costa Rica
Slide 31: Stage Three • Large families not needed to work the fields or contribute pay • Children living longer • Compulsory education • Higher women’s literacy and employment • Improvements in contraceptive technology
Slide 32: Stage Three Other Countries in Stage Three Mexico Egypt El Salvador Jamaica Philippines Surinam South Africa Algeria Lebanon Morocco Panama Ecuador And Many More…
Slide 33: Stage Four Stabilized population growth Approaching Zero Population Growth (ZPG) Higher standard of living Post-industrial phase
Slide 34: Zero Population Growth (ZPG) 2.1 kids per couple
Slide 35: Stage Four Countries in Stage Four United States Canada New Zealand Australia Brazil most of Europe Bahamas Puerto Rico Mauritius Sri Lanka
Slide 36: An Argument for Stage Five? • Declining population • Not having enough children to replace themselves • Examples: Italy, Japan, Spain, Germany, Greece, Russia
Slide 37: Migration and Urbanization
Slide 38: (note the smog…) Mexico City
Slide 39: William Crowley’s model of urban land use in mainland Middle and South America The pattern of squatter settlements in Vitória, Brazil
Slide 40: Peruvians living in poverty
Slide 41: Squatter community in Fortaleza, Brazil
Slide 42: Vila da Serra squatter settlement, Brazil
Slide 43: Economic Issues   Politics and economy have been inextricably linked in the region Colonial policies have crippled many of the countries in Middle and South America, even into the present day…
Slide 44: Colonial Economies  Mercantilism Spanish and Portuguese profits and extracted materials went back to Europe  Finished goods were sent back to the colonies for trade  Colonies were not allowed to trade with one another   This set the stage for the underground, informal economy, as well as rampant local corruption and a drastic disparity of wealth
Slide 45: Regional Independence Movements
Slide 46: Revolutionaries? Or Opportunists?  Who initiated many of the independence movements?  The elites! So they could stop bowing to Europe and take power for themselves.  Why?   Did they work to improve the economy? Only where it lined their pocketbooks. Which is to say, not much.  Perpetuation of the wealth and power gap 
Slide 47: The World Bank 1945: Created to help reconstruct Europe after WWII Created at the Bretton Woods Conference Major goals: eliminating poverty, implementing sustainable development, ending corruption… Gives loans to countries
Slide 48: Criticisms of the World Bank Supports US business practices President of the World Bank is always an American, nominated by the President of the USA Bank has actually increased poverty and damaged the environment World Bank promotes western interests US has veto power on all decisions
Slide 49: IMF Oversees the global financial system Headquartered in Washington DC Organization of 185 countries Goals: foster global economic cooperation, help international trade, reduce poverty, promote employment To provide short-term financial assistance to countries that are experiencing financial difficulties To approve a decision, 85% must vote yes United States voting power: 16%
Slide 50: Criticisms of the IMF IMF has a history of supporting military dictatorships Financial aid is tied to conditions determined by outsiders Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP’s) rarely successful
Slide 51: Structural Adjustment Programs What are Structural Adjustment programs? Economic policies which countries must follow in order to qualify for new World Bank and IMF loans to make debt repayments on older debts. What do they require? Devalue their currency Focus on production and exports
Slide 52: SAP’s also encourage balancing the budget through: Decrease in government spending Meaning…decreasing social services like education and healthcare. Critics argue that this hurts the poor.
Slide 53: Do Structural Adjustment Programs Work? How do we measure success? Who owns the implementation of SAP’s? How long should it take to succeed?
Slide 54: How do we measure success? Economic Growth and Economic Health Critics argue that we should also measure success through cultural and social indicators
Slide 55: Who owns implementation of policies? IMF a very large part of implementation Takes power out of the hands of the individual countries
Slide 56: How long should it take to succeed? SAP’s are supposed to alleviate problems in the short-run May see an improvement in short term May be harmful at a longer term scale
Slide 58: International Debt
Slide 59: How did poor countries become so indebted? High interest rates, oil price shocks, recessions in industrialized countries
Slide 60: Think… 600 million people live an average of 7 years less than citizens of other developing countries. Half of these live on less than $1 per day.
Slide 61:  The IMF and World Bank have been empowered by the governments which control it (led by the U.S., the U.K., Japan, Germany, France, Canada, and Italy -- the "Group of 7," which holds over 40% of the votes on their boards) with imposing economic austerity policies in the countries of the so-called “Third World” or “global South”. Once Southern countries build up large external debts, as most have, they cannot get credit or cash anywhere else and are forced to go to these international institutions and accept whatever conditions are demanded of them. None of the countries has emerged from their debt problems; indeed most countries now have much higher levels of debt than when they first accepted IMF/World Bank "assistance."  