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Slide 2: AR T H I S T O R Y T H E B AS I C S Art History: The Basics has been written as a concise and accessible introduction for the interested general reader and the undergraduate approaching the subject for the first time at college or university. It will give you answers to questions like: • • • • • What is art and art history? What are the main methodologies used to understand art? How have ideas about form, sex and gender shaped representation? What connects art with psychoanalysis, semiotics and Marxism? How are globalisation and postmodernism changing art and art history? Each chapter introduces key ideas, issues and debates in art history, including information on relevant websites and image archives. Fully illustrated with an international range of artistic examples, Art History: The Basics also includes helpful subject summaries, further ideas for reading in each chapter, and a useful glossary for easy reference. Grant Pooke lectures in the History and Philosophy of Art at the University of Kent. He is co-author of Teach Yourself Art History (2003) and the author of Francis Klingender 1907–1955: A Marxist Art Historian Out of Time (2007). Diana Newall completed her doctoral studies at the Courtauld Institute of Art. Previously an authoring consultant for the Open University’s Teach&Learn project, Diana works as a freelance lecturer and writer.
Slide 3: A L S O AVA I L AB L E F R O M R O U T L E D G E KEY WRITERS ON ART: FROM ANTIQUITY TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY EDITED BY CHRIS MURRAY 978–0–415–24302–5 KEY WRITERS ON ART: THE TWENTIETH CENTURY EDITED BY CHRIS MURRAY 978–0–415–22202–0 CULTURAL THEORY: THE KEY CONCEPTS EDITED BY ANDREW EDGAR AND PETER SEDGWICK 978–0–415–28426–4 THEORY FOR ART HISTORY JAE EMERLING 978–0–415–97364–9 ART HISTORY: THE KEY CONCEPTS JONATHAN HARRIS 978–0–415–31977–5
Slide 4: AR T H I S T O R Y T H E B AS I C S Grant Pooke and Diana Newall
Slide 5: First published 2008 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008. “T purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s o collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 2008 Grant Pooke and Diana Newall All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-41352-0 Master e-book ISBN ISBN10: 0–415–37309–3 (hbk) ISBN10: 0–415–30908–5 (pbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–37309–8 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–37308–1 (pbk)
Slide 6: In memory of Professor Graham Clarke (1948–2007)
Slide 7: The language of contemporary art can be as subtle as calligraphy or the glaze on a vase, except that the materials are ideas, intentions and references. (Grayson Perry, The Times, 1 November 2006) Understanding art takes time. It is not a catchy pop tune or an addictive soap opera. Art needs a lot of looking and reflection ... (Grayson Perry, The Times, 8 November 2006)
Slide 8: CONTENTS List of figures Acknowledgements Introduction xii xv xvii 1 Art theories and art histories What is art and what is art history? 1 So what is art? 4 The classical concept of ‘art’ 5 Fine art as an exclusive category 8 Art as imitation 9 Plato’s idea of mimesis 10 Problems with art as imitation 11 Formalist theories of art – art as ‘significant form’ 12 Bell and avant-garde abstraction 13 The theory of art as expression 13 Objections to Collingwood’s theory 14 Art as abstraction or idea 15 Art understood as ‘family resemblance’ 16 The Institutional Theory of Art 17 Aesthetic theories of art 17 Differing definitions of art: from Plato to the postmodern 18 Art histories – the academic study of art 19 What art historians do 20 Vasari and the origins of art history 20 Early instruction manuals in making art 21 1
Slide 9: viii contents Winckelmann, art history and the Enlightenment 22 Art as an expression of the will to create 23 Aesthetic comparison and contrast 23 Art history in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries 25 British art history, the Courtauld and Warburg Institutes 26 Connoisseurship and attribution 26 The limits of connoisseurship 27 Art history and the 1930s diaspora 28 The New Art History? 29 . . . and since the ‘New Art History’? 30 Summary 31 Further reading 32 2 Formalism, Modernism and modernity Introduction 33 The formal components of painting and design 34 Abstraction as a process 36 Formal language, design and sculpture 42 Some issues arising from formal analysis 46 Formalism as art practice and art theory 47 Roger Fry and a British formalist tradition 48 Avant-garde art and the crisis of taste 50 Greenberg and the dominance of Modernism 52 Modernism and the white cube hang 54 Objections to Greenberg’s formalism 54 Art after Greenberg 56 Summary 57 Further reading 58 33 3 A world still to win: Marxism, art and art history Introduction 59 Who was Karl Marx? 60 Art as ideology 60 Context and intention 62 David and the French salon 62 Reactions and responses to the Horatii 64 Academies and the 'hierarchy of genres' 65 The Horatii as political metaphor 66 Iconography and iconology 68 Iconology and 'intrinsic meaning' 69 Art, alienation and our 'species being' 70 Art as commodity and a ‘deposit of a social relationship’ 71 Superstructure and infrastructure 73 Art and agency – 'life creates consciousness, not consciousness life' 75 David's Horatii as a revolutionary manifesto 75 The Horatii as a canonical painting of the French Revolution 76 59
Slide 10: contents Tendency and social commitment – what should art and artists do? 77 Malevich's Black Square and the ‘zero of forms’ 78 Art and the 'social command': Soviet Socialist Realism 79 Critical theory and the ‘Frankfurt School’ 81 T. J. Clark and a British Marxist tradition 84 Post-Marxism? 86 Summary 87 Further reading 88 Other resources 89 ix 4 Semiotics and poststructuralism Introduction 90 Some basics about language and linguistics 92 Ferdinand de Saussure 92 Charles Sanders Peirce 94 Developments of semiosis 95 So what about art and semiotics? 96 Signs and the representation of reality 96 Modalities of the sign 97 Challenging ‘reality’ 99 Whose ‘reality’ is it anyway? 100 Structural analysis 102 Syntagmatic analysis of images 102 Discourse and power 103 Discourse and ‘metanarratives’ 104 Paradigmatic oppositions 104 Binary oppositions and art 108 Markedness 108 Figurative language 109 Social semiotics 111 Poststructuralism and its critics 112 Summary 113 Further reading 114 90 5 Psychoanalysis, art and the hidden self Introduction 115 Freud, psychoanalysis and psycho-sexual development 116 The Oedipus complex 118 The tripartite structure of the psyche 119 Instinctual energies, creativity and sublimation 119 Surrealism and psychoanalysis 120 Gombrich and psychoanalysis 121 Klein, Stokes, Fuller and the ‘infant–mother’ paradigm 121 Lacan: the mirror stage; the symbolic, the imaginary and the real 123 Feminist challenges to the Freudian and Lacanian psyche 124 Creativity, sadism and perversion 125 115
Slide 11: x contents A Freudian postscript: from symptoms to symbols 128 Art and abjection 130 Abjection, ambivalence and contemporary art 131 Summary 134 Further reading 135 6 Sex and sexualities: representations of gender Introduction 136 What do we mean by sex and gender? 137 Feminism and art history 138 Classical representation of the human form 139 Visualising gender difference 141 Gender, status and power 143 Challenges to gender boundaries 144 Viewing the nude 146 The gaze and ‘the pleasure of looking’ 148 Caught in the act: subverting the pleasure of the gaze 149 Manet’s challenge to the male gaze 149 Feminist art 150 Expanding feminism – Marxism, semiotics and psychoanalysis 152 Postfeminism 152 Contemporary art history and feminism 154 Gender perspectives on contemporary art 155 Feminism and postmodernism 156 New paradigms of gender, sex and sexuality 157 The hermaphrodite body 158 Queer theory 159 Beyond gender: the body as sensorium and spectacle 160 Postfeminism and postcolonialism 161 Summary 161 Further reading 162 136 7 Exploring postmodernities Introduction 164 The postmodern and postmodernities 165 Art as commodity and concept 166 Death of the author 169 Postmodern art and theatricality 170 Postmodernity and ‘double-coding’ 171 How soon is 'now'? 173 Art and 'paradigm shifts' 174 Duchamp's readymades 175 The Institutional Theory of Art 176 Limitations of the Institutional Theory 177 American hegemony and a new order 177 Lyotard and the death of the 'grand-narratives' 179 . . . ‘the end of art ’ . . . a new counterculture for the 1960s and 1970s 180 164
Slide 12: contents Photography and cultural reproduction 182 Baudrillard and the four orders of the simulacra 184 Conservative postmodernism: a return to painting? 185 An oppositional postmodern culture 188 Fukuyama and the end of history 188 Summary 189 Further reading 190 xi 8 Globalised proximities and perspectives 192 Introduction 192 Global and local perspectives 193 Globalisation 193 Postcolonialism and postcolonial studies 194 Orientalism 195 Historical perspectives within art histories 196 Boundaries and art histories 197 East and West 198 Artistic interactions across the East/West boundary 199 Perceptions of non-Western art 201 Western cultural appropriations 202 Postcolonial studies 203 Globalised art and more recent perspectives 205 And hybridised ceramics ... 208 Towards a global future: Documenta 2007 210 A globalised art history? 210 Summary 211 Further reading 212 Art and art history: website resources Introduction 213 Search engines 213 Encyclopaedias and specialist art websites 214 Galleries and museums online 214 Other resources 215 213 Glossary of terms Bibliography Index 217 228 255
Slide 13: FIGURES 1 One Day Closer to Paradise, David Hensel, 2006, jesmonite, slate and boxwood base, 44 × 33 × 22cm,© the artist. 2 Another Day Closer to Paradise, David Hensel, 2006, slate and boxwood, 44 × 33 × 22cm, © the artist. 2 3 3 Zeus, copy after a fifth-century BCE original, marble, Louvre, Paris, © photograph Ann Compton, photograph Conway Library, Courtauld Institute of Art, London. 4 War Memorial I, Roger Hill, 2006, oil on canvas, 55.9 × 45.7cm 5 6 7 (artist’s collection), © the artist. War Memorial II, Roger Hill, 2006, oil on canvas, 61 × 45.7cm (artist’s collection), © the artist. War Memorial, Robertsbridge, East Sussex, 2006, ©photograph Diana Newall. Construction in Black and White, George Dannatt, 1989, relief construction, wood, card, flat black and white paint, 18.5 × 14.8cm (private collection), © the artist. Birthday greeting card design for John Wells, George Dannatt, 1977, oils on card, 13.3 × 10.1cm (private collection), © the artist. Cubist design for a tray, Omega Workshop, c.1913–19, graphite, watercolour, body colour on paper, 28.2 × 20cm, © The Samuel Courtauld Trust, Courtauld Institute of Art, London. 7 38 38 39 40 41 8 9 43
Slide 14: list of figures 10 Square Relief, Naum Gabo, c.1920–21/1937–38, Perspex, in Perspex box 11.7 × 11.6 × 6.8cm, courtesy Annely Juda Fine Art, the works of Naum Gabo, © Nina Williams. 11 Still Life with Plaster Cast, Paul Cézanne, c.1894, oil on paper mounted on panel, 70.6 × 57.3cm, © The Samuel Courtauld Trust, Courtauld Institute of Art, London. 12 Oath of the Horatii, Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825), 1784, oil on canvas, 330 × 425cm, Louvre, Paris, © photo RMN/ © Gérard Blot/Christian Jean. 13 Black Square, Kasimir Malevich, c.1929, 106.2 × 106.5cm (Tretyakov Gallery), © photograph Courtauld Institute of Art, London. 14 Walter Benjamin, Peter Kennard, 1990, photomontage, © the artist. 15 An Allegory with Venus and Cupid, Bronzino, c.1540–50, oil on wood, 146.5 × 116.8cm, © National Gallery, London. 16 We Don’t Need Another Hero, Barbara Kruger, 1987. Commissioned and produced by Artangel, © DACS, London, 2006. 17 Black Narcissus, Tim Noble and Sue Webster, 2006, black silicone rubber, wood, light projector, sculpture 38 × 72 × 60cm, plinth 30.5 × 30.5 × 91.5cm, courtesy of the artists, © the artists. 18 Zygotic Acceleration, Biogenetic De-sublimated Libidinal Model (Enlarged × 1,000), Jake and Dinos Chapman, 1995, mixed media, 58 13/16 × 70 9/16 × 54 14/16in. (150 × 180 × 140cm), courtesy Jay Jopling/White Cube (London), © the artists. 19 Muse of Painting, artist unknown, c.1930, 32.5cm including plinth (private collection), © photograph Diana Newall. 20 Adam and Eve, Lucas Cranach I, 1526, oil on panel, 117 × 80cm, © Courtauld Institute of Art, London. 21 Mrs Fiske Warren (Gretchen Osgood) and Her Daughter Rachel, John Singer Sargent, 1903, oil on canvas, 152.4 × 102.55cm, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, gift of Mrs Rachel Warren Barton and Emily L. Ainsley Fund, photograph, © 2006, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 22 A Bar at the Folies-Bergère, Édouard Manet, 1882, oil on canvas, 96 × 130cm, © The Samuel Courtauld Trust, Courtauld Institute of Art, London. xiii 45 49 63 74 82 91 107 129 133 140 142 145 151
Slide 15: xiv list of figures 23 Three Ball Total Equilibrium Tank (Two Dr Silver Series, Spalding NBA Tip-off), Jeff Koons, 1985, glass, steel, sodium chloride reagent, distilled water, 3 basketballs, 62 1/2 × 48 3/4 × 13 1/4in., © Jeff Koons © Tate, London, 2006. 24 Study for Capriccio, Gerald Laing, 2005, 91 × 81cm, © the artist, © photograph Ewen Weatherspoon. 25 An Enduring Offering, Jago Max Williams, 2005, oil on canvas, 128 × 191cm (private collection), © the artist. 26 St George, icon, mid-thirteenth century, 26.8 × 18.8cm, © copyright the Trustees of The British Museum. 27 A Street Scene in Cairo: The Lantern-maker’s Courtship, William Holman Hunt, c.1854–60, oil on canvas, 54.6 × 34.9cm, © Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery. 28 Barbaric Splendour, Grayson Perry, 2003, glazed ceramic, 67 × 35.5cm, courtesy of Victoria Miro Gallery, © the artist. 168 172 187 200 202 209
Slide 16: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Art History: The Basics arose from undergraduate teaching undertaken by its authors at the University of Kent, the Open University and the Courtauld Institute of Art. In a very tangible sense, its content variously reflects seminar and tutorial discussions over several years with full- and part-time students across modules on art historical methodology, aesthetics and contemporary art. We would like to record our appreciation to Jake and Dinos Chapman, George Dannatt, David Hensel, Roger Hill, Peter Kennard, Jeff Koons, Gerald Laing, Grayson Perry, Tim Noble, Sue Webster and Jago Max Williams for their generosity with permissions and images. Our thanks to all of the following for their help with illustrations and arranging permissions: Amanda Baker; Sophie Rigg, Artangel; Lucy Adams and Rachel Cockett, Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery; Geoffrey Fisher, Conway Library; Emma Hayes, Courtauld Institute of Art; Christian Zimmerman, DACS; Nina Williams, Florin Press; Anna Johnson, formerly of St Martin’s School of Art; Andrew MacLachlan; Rebecca Staffolani, National Gallery Picture Library; Lucy Tyler, Osborne Samuel; Sophie Greig, Saatchi Gallery; Claudia Schmid, Tate Gallery; Bryony McLennan, Victoria Miro Gallery; Derek Whittaker, Peter McMaster, University of Kent; Jay Jopling, White Cube Gallery; and Diana De Froment, Witt Library.
Slide 17: xvi acknowledgements We would also like to express our gratitude to colleagues and friends for their time in offering candid and constructive comments on chapter drafts: Robin Cormack, Jonathan Friday, Richard Hingley, Angus Pryor, Eileen Rubery, Ben Thomas, Christina Unwin and Graham Whitham. We would especially like to record our thanks to David Avital and Rosie Waters at Routledge for their enthusiasm and support in this venture and to Aimee Foy, Jonathan Jones and Andy Soutter for assistance with the manuscript.
Slide 18: INTRODUCTION WHO IS THIS BOOK FOR? Art History: The Basics has been written as an undergraduate primer and for the general reader with an interest in art history and the visual arts. As a university or college student, you may be exploring art history or the contextual studies component of a practice-based fine art or art and design programme for the first time. If you are a regular or even casual visitor to galleries and exhibitions, or peruse art critics’ newspaper columns and reviews, Art History: The Basics offers an introduction to the subject and to broader debates about the interpretation and meaning of art. W H AT D O E S T H I S B O O K O F F E R ? In the last few decades art history has developed significantly beyond the stylistic analysis and classification of art works. A number of introductory books or anthologies have been written which open up the subject to the student or general reader. For example, John Berger’s collaborative series of essays, Ways of Seeing (1972), offered a critical Marxist approach to a canonical art history. Marcia Pointon’s Art History: A Students’ Handbook (since 1980) is a highly successful and popular guide largely aimed at a pre-college
Slide 19: xviii introduction student readership. Books containing selected texts on key art historical issues provide material for more in-depth research, for example Eric Fernie‘s Art History and Its Methods: A Critical Anthology (1995). Michael Hatt and Charlotte Klonk’s Art History: A Critical Introduction to Its Methods (2006) offers accessible discussions and explanations of methodological debates in art history. The Methodologies of Art, by Laurie Schneider Adams (1996), surveys differing approaches to art and some of the assumptions of their use. Art History: The Basics provides a toolkit of concepts, ideas and methods relevant to understanding art and art history. It will develop reader knowledge and subject-specific skills, enabling the exploration of issues and debates within art histories. CONTEMPORARY ART HISTORIES Contemporary approaches to art history recognise its plurality – ‘art histories’ – rather than a singular and central art historical tradition. For example, as its title suggests, Ernst Gombrich’s The Story of Art, first published in 1950, asserted particular assumptions and exclusions about the meaning of art and the role of art history, many of which are no longer tenable. Jonathan Harris has described Gombrich’s concern with ‘The canon of great art, and its confirmation in, and by, art history’ as integral to broader humanist values and liberal ideals (2001: 37). Gombrich perceived these connections to be self-evident and unproblematic. Fast-forward over half a century and the ‘picture’, so to speak, looks very different although not unrecognisable. The subject boundaries, which broadly characterised the discipline of art history in the 1950s, have been profoundly transformed by the concerns of critical theory – initially from the continent, and increasingly taken up across the world. Today we are faced with a range of art histories rather than a single methodological approach or explanatory model. What one commentator has recently described as an interdisciplinary ‘menu’ of options concedes the partiality of interpretation, whilst inviting a healthy and timely self-suspicion about the basis on which claims to artistic value and meaning might be sustained. This is not to suggest, however, that older and more conservative ‘Gombrichian’ approaches to art history do not continue among survey courses or some A-level syllabi – they do.
Slide 20: introduction xix Parallel to these new perspectives is an increasingly globalised cultural economy of new proximities and perspectives. The contemporary world is one in which past and present asymmetries of power and postcolonial histories are mediated through contemporary art and art history, as they are by other interests and discourses. A R T H I S T O R Y : T H E B A S I C S – H O W H AV E I T S CHAPTERS BEEN ORGANISED? Chapter 1 considers changing ideas and assumptions about art – what is it and how might it be understood and defined? Its second section offers a selective historical survey of art history – from the origins of the discipline to the impact of the so-called ‘New Art History’. The reason for combining a brief exploration of aesthetics – philosophical approaches to art – with a summary account of art history as an academic discipline is twofold. First, although in many respects these subjects retain separate – and sometimes antagonistic – institutional identities and affiliations, they are nevertheless symbiotic (Elkins 2006). For example, to explain early twentieth-century Western abstraction without reference to assumptions about mimesis or formalism, or to discuss the impact of postmodernity without reference to the Institutional Theory of Art, is to misrepresent the context in which these departures were made and theorised. Second, both art history and critical theory share a well-known point of origin in philosophical aesthetics. These inter-dependencies underline the extent to which critical theory is already ‘immanent’ – that is, within and part of contemporary art history rather than some supplementary gloss concealing methodological business as usual (Emerling 2005: xii). These interconnections are all the more resonant because many of the insights associated with critical theory have questioned traditional aesthetic categories and the nature of our experience and engagement with art. Chapter 2 opens by considering how we might use a formalist vocabulary in describing examples of painting, design, sculpture and construction. What do we mean by formalism and its institutionalisation through Modernism as approaches to looking at, and making art? How might we relate these ideas to abstract art and what has
Slide 21: xx introduction been their legacy for art history? Chapter 3 introduces Marxist perspectives on art and culture and the legacy of such ideas for a social history of art. Chapter 4 discusses the subject of signs or semiotics and the various contributions of Peirce and Saussure. What issues and concerns do structuralism and poststructuralism raise about art, meaning and authorship? Chapter 5 looks at the impact of psychoanalytic theory as well as considering how more recent interventions might be used to situate aspects of art practice. Chapter 6 explores how issues of gender and sexual identity have been mediated through art. It also considers the perspectives offered by feminist, postfeminist and queer theory in relation to art history. Chapter 7 explores the postmodern – what does it mean and to what extent have ideas and theories associated with it been used to characterise art and the status of the visual within culture more generally? Chapter 8 looks at theories of globalisation and postcolonialism and the context of their increasing centrality to art and art histories. Some final points about the images used to illustrate this primer. Subject to the usual constraints and permissions, effort has been made to include a range of work spanning ceramics, construction, installation, painting, photomontage and sculpture. These are not of course exhaustive, omitting for example, performance work, videobased installation and film. However, all of these practices, whether contemporary or otherwise, are the subject and focus of art historical study. The various ideas and interventions explored in these chapters consider the specificity of what art is and what it does – or might do. In the same way that art is not reducible to the theories explored in these chapters, neither is it produced without an awareness of the aesthetic values and presuppositions of its time – whether a Cranach painting or a Gabo construction. If anything, one of the frequently noted characteristics of much recent art practice across all of these genres is the extent to which it is self-referential, demonstrating other traditions of art making and art theory. To give some immediate examples, the work of Jake and Dinos Chapman, Peter Kennard, Barbara Kruger, Gerald Laing, Fiona Rae and Yinka Shonibare registers an acute awareness of the institutional frameworks in which art is made, discussed and historically located. In
Slide 22: introduction xxi this sense, it might not be too great a claim to suggest that art practice and art history increasingly – and reflexively – implicate each other. GLOSSARY TERMS, CHAPTER SUMMARIES AND FURTHER READING Each chapter poses questions and includes summaries for reference purposes, in addition to noting resources for further exploration and ideas for additional reading. The aim throughout Art History: The Basics has been to support active engagement and to underline what we hope is a discursive and accessible reading experience which will encourage further exploration of both art and art history. The use of italics indicates a glossary term, which will be italicised on first use within any given chapter. For a more wide-ranging and comprehensive glossary of terms see Art History: The Key Concepts by Jonathan Harris (2006). All titles of art works discussed in the text are in bold italics. A full listing of examples used in this primer, including media, dimensions, date and location, is given in the list of figures on pages xii–xiv. Note that the reference to each illustration includes its page number. Unless otherwise stated, the views, omissions and assumptions in this book are those of its authors. Grant Pooke Diana Newall
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Slide 24: 1 ART THEORIES AND ART HISTORIES W H AT I S A R T A N D W H AT I S A R T H I S T O R Y ? I’m delighted to have made an empty plinth that isn’t empty, where the exhibit itself is merely invisible. (David Hensel 2006) A British artist sends a sculpture to an internationally prestigious and open art exhibition. However, what the selectors actually accept for exhibition is not the jesmonite laughing head, but its slate plinth and bone-shaped wooden rest which had been accidentally separated from the sculpture during handling. The head, One Day Closer to Paradise, 2006 (Figure 1, p. 2), was duly returned to the bemused F sculptor. The empty plinth (RA exhibit 1201), subsequently reF named Another Day Closer to Paradise (Figure 2, p. 3), was later auctioned with a donation made to charity. This is not an urban myth, but a widely publicised incident which occurred at the Royal Academy’s 2006 Summer Exhibition (Malvern 2006: 4–5). The artist involved, David Hensel (b. 1945), recalled: the art world itself seems to be engaged in a cultural performance about our times, a parody about duplicity, marketing tactics, and acquiescence.
Slide 25: Figure 1 One Day Closer to Paradise, David Hensel, 2006, jesmonite, slate and boxwood base, 44 × 33 × 22cm, © the artist.
Slide 26: Figure 2 Another Day Closer to Paradise, David Hensel, 2006, slate and boxwood, 44 × 33 × 22cm, © the artist.
Slide 27: 4 art theories and art histories Presenting this work in public and watching the reactions has produced many fascinating insights into how the arts work, about the need for understanding the broader picture of the dynamics of culture, and particularly the need to study the history of propaganda and patronage, the pursuit of invisible influence, in parallel to the study of a history of art. (Letter from David Hensel, 1 December 2006) Unsympathetic critics and commentators claimed that the treatment of Hensel’s RA submission demonstrated the ‘emperor’s new clothes’ syndrome, although the jury’s selection seemed to suggest just how arbitrary contemporary ideas about art and aesthetics seem to be. Taking Hensel’s thoughts on his RA submission and its aftermath as a point of departure, we might reasonably ask what we actually mean by art and art history. These are the two central questions around which this primer has been written. This chapter will consider some of the changing ideas about art and its interpretation. What are the origins of art history as an academic discipline and how has it evolved? What is the purpose of art? And how might we characterise some of the developments of recent decades within the academic discipline of art history? S O W H AT I S A R T ? There really is no such thing as Art. There are only artists. (Gombrich 1984: 4) Gombrich’s Delphic observation suggests that art is something which artists do. The various examples used to illustrate this primer – ceramics, constructions, paintings, land art, installations, performance art, photomontage and sculpture – all have aesthetic status. In other words, the label ‘art’ connects very disparate objects, practices and processes. Recognising this diversity, various categorisations have been made within definitions of visual art (including Fernie 1995: 326). Building on these we might propose a general set of guidelines for understanding what art is thought to be: • Fine art has traditionally been used to distinguish arts promoted by the academy, including painting, drawing and
Slide 28: art theories and art histories 5 • • sculpture, from craft-based arts. The latter typically refers to those works created for a function – such as ceramics, jewellery, textiles, needlework and glass which are still termed decorative arts. This distinction does not apply so strongly in contemporary art making where a wide variety of media are used including, for example, ceramics (Grayson Perry) and embroidery (Tracey Emin). There is, however, still a loose boundary between objects made with a specific function in mind (and therefore where technical and design-related concerns are paramount) and those which are made primarily for display. A broader definition of art encompasses those activities which produce works with aesthetic value, including film making, performance and architecture. For example, architecture has always had a close connection to painting, drawing and sculpture, two instances being the classical revival in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries and the Bauhaus aesthetic of the 1930s which frequently integrated fine art with design, craft and architecture. Contemporary definitions of art are not medium specific (as ideas around fine art tended to be) or particularly restrictive about the nature of aesthetic value (as Modernism was – see Chapter 2). These ideas are associated with the Institutional Theory of Art which is probably the most widely used definition. It recognises that art can be a term designated by the artist and by the institutions of the art world, rather than by any external process of validation. On the one hand it provides an expansive framework for understanding diverse art practices, but on the other, it is so broad as to be virtually meaningless. We will return to this in Chapter 7. However, regardless of categorisation, all definitions of art are mediated through culture, history and language. To understand these differing concepts of art, we need to look at their social and cultural origin. T H E C L A S S I C A L C O N C E P T O F ‘A R T ’ In a Western context, art understood as a practical, craft-based activity has the longest history. For example, within ancient Greek culture
Slide 29: 6 art theories and art histories there was no word or concept approximating to our understanding of ‘art’ or ‘artist’. However, the Greek word ‘techne’ denoted a skill or craft and ‘technites’ a craftsman who made objects for particular purposes and occasions (Sörbom 2002: 24). Similarly, within the classical world, examples of craft, such as statues and mosaics, had practical, public and ceremonial roles. The classical sculpture of Zeus, copy after a fifth-century BCE original (Figure 3, p. 7), would F have been judged according to the technical standard demonstrated, and by the extent to which it fulfilled the social and civic roles expected of craft. Foremost of these was the belief that the human form should be represented in its most life-like and vital sense as the union of body and soul (Sörbom 2002: 26). The idea that a sculpture or mosaic should be judged on criteria independent of such purposes was alien to the classical concept of craft. and BCE In response to concerns over the implied Christian bias of BC (before Christ) and AD (anno domini – in the year of our Lord), contemporary scholars sometimes use CE (common era, equivalent to AD) and BCE (before the common era, equivalent to BC) instead. CE Within a Western tradition of art, originating from Greek and Roman practice, the categories of art and craft have become familiar within specific contexts, cultures and in relation to particular audiences. Throughout Europe and North America for example, cultural assumptions about what art customarily was were closely linked to the origins and development of the academic subject of art history itself. Of central importance to this were the social institutions such as academies and museums which were established from the late sixteenth century onwards. Collectively, these interests, and those associated with them, established normative definitions of art, that is, ideas about how art should look and what it should do, variations of which have continued today. Another point worth making is that to label something as art implies some kind of evaluative judgement about the image, object or process. That is, it recognises the specificity of a range of practices within a broader category or tradition with particular claims
Slide 30: Figure 3 Zeus, copy after a fifth-century BCE original, marble, Louvre, Paris, © photograph Ann Compton, photograph Conway Library, Courtauld Institute of Art, London.
Slide 31: 8 art theories and art histories to aesthetic and/or social value. But it is important to understand that the meaning and attributions of art are particular to different contexts, societies and periods. Whatever the prevalence through time of objects and practices with aesthetic purpose, ideas and definitions of art are neither timeless nor beyond history, but relate to the social and cultural assumptions of the societies and environments which fashion them. FINE ART AS AN EXCLUSIVE C AT E G O R Y The academy-based categorisation of fine art and the consensus which underpinned it for several centuries demonstrate how durable and hegemonic such interests were. But from the later nineteenth century onwards many avant-garde artists began to make work which questioned either the conventional subject matter and primacy of these distinct categories (history paintings and portraiture for example), or the tradition of representation which they signified. For example, the work of Paul Cézanne (1839–1906), Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) and Georges Braque (1882–1963) underlined the importance of still-life as a genre to the birth of modernism (Bryson 1990: 81–86). Similarly, the development of collage by Braque and Picasso, and their inclusion of everyday objects such as flyers and tickets, explored the actuality of the flat surface, rather than concealing it through illusionism which had been such a dominant feature of academy-sponsored painting and sculpture. Academy-based ideas typically marginalised non-Western art practices which reflected different ideas about aesthetics, culture and meaning. Overseas trade, colonisation and imperialism stimulated interest in tribal masks, carvings, fabrics and fetish objects from regions such as Africa, Asia, India and Iberia. These objects, and the indigenous cultures they represented, contributed to major ethnographic collections throughout Europe, stimulating widespread interest in non-Western art and artefacts (Ratnam 2004a: 158–60). Within the avant-garde, various artists like Braque, André Derain (1880–1954), Ernst Kirchner (1880–1938), Henri Matisse (1869–1954), Picasso and Maurice de Vlaminck (1876–1958) popularised the cult of primitivism. Whilst such interests frequently reflected romanticised stereotypes about what primitive art and culture actually signified,
Slide 32: art theories and art histories 9 there was also recognition of the social and political dimensions to such use (Leighten 1990: 609–30). The legacy of academy-based conventions of art making is such that there is still a tendency by some to rate fine art – painting, drawing and sculpture – as intrinsically superior to installation, performance or conceptual art practices. For example, the sponsoring of a ‘Not the Turner Prize’ by a national newspaper demonstrates the willingness within parts of the media industry to tap into palpable unease among sections of the general public about the criteria for what is admissible as art and the cultural authority of those who customarily make such judgements. Similarly, the press and public furore over the example of the empty plinth, cited at the start of this chapter, suggests just how deep-seated some of these ideas actually are. In order to understand such categorisations and exclusions, it is useful to consider those aesthetic theories which have been historically influential in shaping values and assumptions about the meaning of art. A R T A S I M I TAT I O N F Consider Adam and Eve, 1526 (Figure 20, p. 142), by Lucas Cranach I (1472–1553), and John Singer Sargent’s (1856–1925) portrait of Mrs Fiske Warren (Gretchen Osgood) and Her Daughter Rachel, F 1903 (Figure 21, p. 145). There are appreciable differences between these two paintings in terms of subject, date, genre, origin, materials and meaning. Whereas Cranach attempts to convey the symbolism of a Biblical story (the Temptation of Adam), and Sargent seeks to capture the likeness of his sitter, both paintings work on the basis of resemblance – either the circumstances of an imagined event or the features of a particular individual. The theory of imitation (or mimesis), situates art as a mirror to nature and the world around us. Within the history of Western painting, the principle of imitation was associated with the invention and widespread adoption of single point perspective, an innovation which, literally and symbolically, underlined the primacy of the artist’s viewpoint. This was a major breakthrough which assisted in ever more convincing illusions of depth and space on a flat surface. For example, a naturalistic painting, like Masaccio’s Holy Trinity, 1427–28, in Santa Maria Novella, Florence, became, in
Slide 33: 10 art theories and art histories effect, a hole in the wall to another spatial dimension. This example was emblematic of attempts to capture the way things looked, or were believed to be. The success of an art work became, in large part, dependent on the extent and ease with which spectators were seduced into suspending disbelief, forgetting that they were in fact looking at a flat, two-dimensional surface. Artchive online Art works are referenced throughout this book. Although many have been included as illustrations, the reader is encouraged to use the internet to view other works and artists referenced or discussed. One useful source, in addition to the major gallery websites, is the Artchive website: http://artchive.com/ftp_site.htm For example, select Masaccio from the list of artists, view the image list and select Trinity (1427–28) to view this work. P L AT O ’ S I D E A O F M I M E S I S The idea of art as imitation can be traced back to book ten of Plato’s The Republic, c.340 BCE (Sheppard 1987: 5–9). Here, Plato dismissed painting, which he understood in terms of mimesis or imitation, as having limited use. A painting of a table was neither the ideal form of the table (the perfect idea of a table which existed in divine imagination) nor the table made in a carpenter’s workshop. According to Plato, a painting of a table was merely a copy and had limited practical value since it could not even be used to actually make or design a real table (Plato 1987: 424–26). Although elsewhere, Plato was more supportive of schematic art (Hyman 1989: 84–88), his comments here suggest that the practice of strongly imitative and illusionistic painting is little short of a fraudulent activity. Plato’s approach to art was framed by the classical world and its values. The principle of imitation makes more sense when we consider the belief, prominent since the Renaissance, that artists should attempt as accurate a representation of their subject as possible. Beliefs of this kind shaped much of the Western canon of art – those examples judged by the academies to be benchmarks of their kind. In fact, it took nearly 400 years after the birth of Leonardo da Vinci, for an avant-garde challenge to the dominant belief that art was fundamen-
Slide 34: art theories and art histories 11 tally about achieving naturalistic effects. But the idea that art should be imitative of things in the world remains widespread, and is not an untypical response by some to aspects of contemporary practice. P R O B L E M S W I T H A R T A S I M I TAT I O N First, imitation as such is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition of art. It certainly does not account for the artistic status of music, architecture, imaginative fiction or poetry. Neither does it account for abstraction – art which does not have any obvious resemblance to the world around us – or with three-dimensional installations. Consider, for example, one of four versions of Kasimir Malevich’s (1878–1935) Black Square, c.1929 (Figure 13, p. 74). Although this image has been F interpreted in various ways, naturalism is not among its concerns. The theory of mimesis is also unhelpful when exploring art which follows differing assumptions about meaning and value. Potentially, this theory marginalises traditions of image making within Byzantine and Islamic art where transcendent considerations are paramount; or art from Asia and China. For example, art from after the Han Dynasty (c.206 BCE–220 CE) was understood as an expression of the dao – literally meaning the path or way – which derived from Daoism, a religion indigenous to China (Clunas 1997: 101). Daoism offered personal salvation and the prospect of immortality, beliefs which were conveyed through various ceremonial, ritualistic and alchemical practices. Unlike the Greek and Roman cultural tradition of imitation, art produced in China at this time was concerned with bringing its maker’s personality into alignment with the dao – the universe and the natural order. The emphasis on imitation also excludes a wide range of objects and practices which have characterised more recent avant-garde art. Besides, the idea that imitative art and photography are impartial mirrors of the external world is difficult to justify – we all perceive and experience the world differently. Ultimately, any representation is an interpretation which will not be neutral, but subjective (Foster 1985: 59–64). Lastly, even when we are presented with a naturalistic image, is it really the illusionistic effect that we take to be the ultimate point of interest or value? Whilst we might applaud the painter, or the photographer’s naturalistic technique, is imitation really all we look for in art?
Slide 35: 12 art theories and art histories FORMALIST THEORIES OF ART – ART AS ‘SIGNIFICANT FORM’ In the novel Brideshead Revisited, Evelyn Waugh’s doomed character, Sebastian Flyte, reads aloud an extract from Clive Bell’s Art. He quotes: Does anyone feel the same kind of emotion for a butterfly or a flower that he feels for a cathedral or a picture? (Waugh 1982 [1954]: 27) Bell believed that we respond to instances of natural beauty differently from how we do to examples of art. A British journalist and art critic, Clive Bell (1881–1964) outlined these and similar ideas on formalist aesthetics in his treatise Art (1914). In outline, formalist approaches to art emphasise the appearance and composition of the art work (its form) rather than its narrative or content. Here, discussing ‘works of art’, Bell asks the question, ‘What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our aesthetic emotions?’ (Bell 1949: 8). Bell asserted that our response to certain types of art arose from the impression made by the properties of its form – lines, colours, shapes and tones. He claimed that such an aesthetic response was intuitive and involuntary. That is, we have no control over how we feel in front of, for example, a Cézanne canvas or a Persian tapestry. Represented in a particular way, a configuration of lines, shapes and colours provides the viewer with the experience of significant form which Bell judged to be the benchmark of all great works of art. Similarly, all such examples have in common this quality of significant form. Bell’s theory appears circular and self-justifying. Since it also fails to clearly define either ‘form’ or ‘significant’ it is impossible to evaluate more clearly what criteria he actually envisaged. It is suggested that the spectator will know when they have experienced such a compelling response to an object, even if it cannot be clearly explained. Bell’s theory was also essentialist – it asserted that great art shared, or had in common, essential and consistent visual qualities which enabled its recognition as such. Refreshingly, for the Edwardian times in which his ideas were expressed, Bell judged
Slide 36: art theories and art histories 13 such attributes to be as applicable to fine art as they were to examples of design, craft or architecture, all of which were given comparable status (Edwards 1999: 9). The idea of significant form, even if deliberately vague, proved attractive to a new generation because it seemed to account for the apparently simple, sensual pleasure derived from actually looking at aesthetic objects, regardless of their purpose, previous categorisation or status. B E L L A N D AVA N T - G A R D E A B S T R A C T I O N Although Bell’s theory was simplistic, it underlined a shift of sensibility away from making evaluative judgements about art arising from criteria of resemblance or academic naturalism which had previously defined mainstream British, European and American painting. The increasing prevalence of photography, which provided mechanical reproductions of images, underlined the importance of identifying those features and attributes which were unique to other forms of aesthetic practice (Gould 2003: 37–38). Like his colleague and contemporary Roger Fry (1886–1934), Bell was an advocate of the work of Cézanne (see for example Figure 11, p. 49) and the Post-Impressionists, exhibitions of which he had supported in London in 1910 and 1912 (Gaiger and Wood 2003: 4). More provocatively, Bell also argued that the narrative content of art was at best irrelevant, and at worst actually negated an object’s aesthetic status. Appealingly for some of his Edwardian contemporaries, he effectively wrote off much of the Western canon of art since the Renaissance! These ideas were important because they anticipated some of the critical responses to avant-garde abstraction which subsequently became widespread. THE THEORY OF ART AS EXPRESSION Art is the community’s medicine for the worst disease of mind, the corruption of soul. (Collingwood 1975) According to the theory of expression, art should clarify and refine ideas and feelings which are shared with the spectator. Among its
Slide 37: 14 art theories and art histories most influential exponents was the British historian and aesthetician R. G. Collingwood (1889–1943). In The Principles of Art (1943), Collingwood argued that art proper is distinguished by a particular and unique emotion, not possessed by either craft or art as amusement, which he describes as lesser forms of technical art. As he eloquently put it, art’s place is to tell the audience ‘the secrets of their own hearts’ (Collingwood 1975: 336). By communicating authentic thought or a state of mind, art enabled both the artist and viewer to gain self-knowledge and so lead a better life. As Graham notes: It is through imaginative construction that the artist transforms vague and uncertain emotion into an articulate expression. (1997: 32) The idea that art should have a broadly communicative role is not new, but what Collingwood seems to be suggesting is more ambitious: art should convey fundamental truths and insight about what it means to be human and in the world. This theory is regarded as normative; its concern is less with a definition of art as such, but with how art should be valued and understood (Graham 1997: 176). Insofar as Collingwood’s theory disregards resemblance as a criterion of art proper, it shares similarities with Bell’s idea of significant form and other formalist theories. OBJECTIONS TO COLLINGWOOD’S THEORY Few might argue with the generality of Collingwood’s suggestion, but the moral tone which underpins his idea of art as a form of selfknowledge is used to justify various exclusions to its definition. First, there seems to be no recognition of the authentic pleasures and enjoyment which looking at and engaging with art can bring. Second, Collingwood does not recognise craft – those objects executed for a purpose – as art proper (Ridley 1998: 10). He continues by suggesting that whilst art may have an element of planning, it may equally be undertaken without a final idea or conception of the finished form. By contrast, any example of craft, such as the making of a table or chair, necessarily requires that its maker has a clear plan of how it will be constructed and what it will look like (Collingwood 1975: 20–22).
Slide 38: art theories and art histories 15 Written in the 1940s, Collingwood’s qualitative distinction between art and craft now looks dated, particularly because the art paradigm which he seems to have had in mind is that of painting. But since the 1960s, much art has explored other media or has hybridised F existing forms. For example, Grayson Perry (Figure 28, p. 209) has combined the craft associations of ceramics with some of the expressive and iconographical concerns previously associated with painting. The making of much bespoke Renaissance painting and sculpture was not just planned in the general sense conceded by Collingwood’s definition, but was highly codified by stipulations regarding size, composition, execution and quality of materials (Baxandall 1988). Whilst it could be argued that such work was still understood and regarded by fifteenth-century contemporaries as indeed a form of craft, by the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries it had been recognised and given ‘fine art’ status. As Warburton observes (2003: 60–61), if Collingwood’s ideas are taken at face value, religious art, including the St George Icon F F (Figure 26, p. 200) and Cranach’s Adam and Eve (Figure 20, p. 142), created to arouse devotional feeling, would be relegated to a form of magic or non-art. Collingwood also discounts representational art, suggesting that since it too is undertaken according to a plan of capturing a likeness, it should be understood as a technical or lesser form of art or craft (Collingwood 1975: 42–43). ART AS ABSTRACTION OR IDEA These exclusions seem to suggest that authentic art might typically include examples of abstraction like Malevich’s Black Square F (Figure 13, p. 74) or that it remains an unrealised concept. One of the striking features of Collingwood’s The Principles of Art is just how few references are made to contemporary (i.e. 1930s) visual art; only the sculptor John Skeaping (1901–80) is noted in passing (1975: 10). The positive mention of the semi-abstract painting of Cézanne and the ideas of the art historian Bernard Berenson (1865–1959) implies a preference for art which conveys meaning through form and imaginative association. As in Plato’s theory of ideal forms, Collingwood suggests that the actual making of the art object is inherently inferior to its conception as an ideal form. Seeing or otherwise encountering for
Slide 39: 16 art theories and art histories ourselves the forms, ideas and associations of art is fundamental to the sensory experience it offers. Unless art is reproduced and shared with the viewer in some way, it remains invisible, known only to the artist’s mind. Although there are clearly problems with Collingwood’s theory of expression, what it does acknowledge is the extent to which visual art, like music, can and does provide insights and perspectives which are not automatically those arising from mere resemblance, or which are necessarily reducible to form. Although a cliché, the idea that an image or object can convey a thousand words at least recognises that art can be uniquely expressive of ideas and associations – sensuous, intellectual or experiential – more easily felt than explained. A R T U N D E R S T O O D A S ‘ F A M I LY RESEMBLANCE’ Faced with such diversity, some philosophers have argued that there is little point in looking for a common denominator in art, be it resemblance or expression, which will give a comprehensive and catch-all definition. Instead they have used the idea of ‘family resemblance’ (Warburton 2004: 149–50). Whilst members of a family will share some genetic and physical characteristics from one generation to another, these will suggest resemblance rather than exact similarity. Therefore, the best that we can hope for is that types of art such as paintings, film or installations will have particular qualities in common which will enable us to recognise them all as art. This approach offers the possibility that new and innovative art forms and movements can be incorporated into the existing ‘family’ on the basis of sharing some characteristics. In this sense, art can be understood as an open concept which is subject to development. A major problem with the concept of family resemblance is that it makes no distinction between exhibited and non-exhibited properties. So, whilst we might identify stylistic similarities in examples of mimetic art, there may be other cases where otherwise diverse and visually different art practices do have an underlying connection which is not apparent to the eye (Warburton 2003: 84). For instance, several examples of art with no evident visual similarities may have non-exhibited but relational aspects in
Slide 40: art theories and art histories 17 common. The example used by one commentator is that such images may have been undertaken for a similar audience or context, although of course this would not necessarily be an exhibited property (Mandelbaum 1995: 193–210). However, the example cited falls short of providing a definitive relational feature (Neill and Ridley 1995: 193). It was partly this perceived limitation in the concept of resemblance that the next theory we consider attempts to avoid. THE INSTITUTIONAL THEORY OF ART As mentioned earlier, the Institutional Theory of Art suggests that art can be what the artist and the art world say it is. Typical examples would include Marcel Duchamp’s (1887–1968) Fountain, 1917, or Tracey Emin’s (b. 1963) My Bed, 1999. Although the most flexible and accommodating of the art theories so far outlined, it runs the risk of overlooking the very specificities and attributes of art (whatever they might be), which makes it such an important and differentiated human activity. Besides, upon what criteria does the art world make its selection of those objects designated as art? This theory is discussed further in Chapter 7. AESTHETIC THEORIES OF ART All the theories of art considered so far have limitations. Acknowledging these, philosophers have looked at the nature of aesthetic appreciation itself. In other words, is there something that our response to art has in common with the pleasure that we take in a landscape, the cadence of a sentence or simply in listening to the morning chorus? Instead of attempting to define art, should we simply attempt a definition of beauty? If we can successfully agree on this, perhaps we can base our judgements about art on surer footings? The definition of beauty and the character of our response to it have proved a challenging philosophical and aesthetic problem, the nature of which cannot be fully explored here. In short, there is no agreement on what beauty is, or what it might be. As Sheppard notes, a satisfactory account of the aesthetic experience must explain what makes it so powerfully intuitive and, at the same time, explain why its opposite – detachment, or even disgust or horror – might also be compelling (1987: 64–65). The German philosopher
Slide 41: 18 art theories and art histories Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) claimed that aesthetic judgements are disinterested, that is we respond to an object simply on the basis of how it appears to us, rather than us having any particular need or use for it. Although he claimed that aesthetic judgements claim universal validity, Kant remained vague on what the particular criteria of such aesthetic judgements might be, or how differing aesthetic judgements are possible (Sheppard 1987: 74–75). D I F F E R I N G D E F I N I T I O N S O F A R T: F R O M P L AT O T O THE POSTMODERN So far, we have considered definitions of art as imitation; significant form; expression; as an activity understood in terms of the metaphor of ‘family resemblance’; or as something which is institutionally created. We have noted inconclusive claims as to what constitutes beauty and how it might be justified. These approaches provide a theoretical context for understanding some of the differing historical approaches to, and contexts of, artistic production. Although this is a sweeping generalisation, in a Western context the first theory, or variations of it, was prevalent until the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, explaining as it did the belief that art should principally be concerned with naturalistic representation. The late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century cult of Romanticism encouraged exploration of the subjective or expressive human response to nature. For example, the oil-based landscapes by the German painter Caspar David Friedrich (1774–1840), or those of the British artist J.M.W. Turner (1775–1851), were not simply concerned with achieving topographical accuracy, but were attempts to express the experience of the landscape upon human sense-perception. The origins of abstraction in painting and sculpture in the late nineteenth century, and its adoption among the European avantgardes in the initial decades of the twentieth century, were concerned with art’s expressive potential independent of representation. For example, having completed a version of his Black Square F (Figure 13, p. 74), Malevich proclaimed ‘I have transfigured myself in the zero of forms’ – an aspiration which defied the traditions of naturalistic representation (Néret 2003: 50). Of the aesthetic theories discussed, the institutional definition of art is widely referenced in relation to the contexts of postmodern
Slide 42: art theories and art histories 19 culture of the later twentieth century. However, within Western traditions of art making, particular aesthetic ideas and theories have been fashionable at particular times and in particular contexts. Such ideas were (and remain) part of a broader cultural, political and economic framework in which various types and kinds of art were commissioned, produced and evaluated. ART HISTORIES – THE ACADEMIC STUDY OF ART The academic subject of art history, with its origins in the eighteenth century, was no less embedded within the ideas, assumptions and institutions of its time. The aesthetic theories outlined here have been variously used or privileged by particular methodological approaches which in turn have underpinned the ideas of art historians, critics and other cultural commentators. The chapters in this primer have been organised to reflect some of these interconnections and inter-dependencies. For example, Greenberg’s Modernist theory, explored in Chapter 2, can be seen as a belief which privileges the best art on the basis of judgements about form. The interpretative framework offered by more orthodox and pragmatic forms of Marxism (Chapter 3) has typically, although not exclusively, endorsed art in terms of resemblance and imitation. The institutional reading of art is evident within formulations of the postmodern (Chapter 7). More recent critiques offered by semiotics (Chapter 4), psychoanalysis (Chapter 5), feminism (Chapter 6) and postcolonialism (Chapter 8) have explored issues, themes and exclusions arising from past and present methodological traditions which have their origins both within and beyond the academic study of art history. The collective impact of these critiques, appreciable from the late 1960s onwards, resulted in claims of a ‘New Art History’. However, as several commentators noted at the time, it was by no means clear if there had been agreement on what the old art history had been (Bann 1986: 19–31). In this chapter’s second section, we will explore aspects of the development of art history. Understood in its very broadest sense, art history is the academic study concerned with exploring the making and meaning of those objects and practices judged to have aesthetic value. As you read the brief survey of the development of
Slide 43: 20 art theories and art histories art history, keep in mind the ideas about what art was generally assumed to be through these successive historical periods. Whilst art is not a static category, similarly, the assumptions and practices of art historians have also changed through time. In this sense, the actual production of art and its academic study are symbiotic. W H AT A R T H I S T O R I A N S D O Art history has been described as the ‘discipline that examines the history of art and artefacts’ (Pointon 1997: 21). Like many definitions, it verges on the tautological, but Pointon succinctly registers the expansive scope of study which typifies the discipline – those objects and practices arising from human agency which are judged to have aesthetic value. Fernie (1995: 326–27) defines art history as the ‘historical study of those made objects which are presumed to have a visual content’, with the task of the art historian being to explain ‘why such objects look as they do’. He elaborates various examples and concludes: These objects can be treated as, among other things, conveyors of aesthetic and intellectual pleasure, as abstract form, as social products, and as expressions of cultures and ideologies. (Fernie 1995: 327) These definitions underline the extent to which art can sustain a multiplicity of meanings, and that in attempting to interpret details of form and content, the art historian is inevitably concerned with broader issues of social context, causation and value. Exploring how art looks or appears is just part of a wider interpretative framework, within which there are various methodological approaches which are neither value-free nor impartial. Although these will be discussed in the following chapters, we should start by considering the origins of art history as an academic discipline. VA S A R I A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F ART HISTORY So where does art history as the academic study of art making actually begin? Depending on your perspective, there are various points
Slide 44: art theories and art histories 21 of departure. Many art historians and historiographers (those concerned with the history of the academic discipline) date it to the appearance of Vasari’s The Lives of the Artists (1550 and 1568). Giorgio Vasari (1511–74), painter, architect and courtier, chronicled the work of Italian artists, describing their painting styles and patrons, leaving thumbnail sketches of their personalities and behaviour. A keen self-publicist, Vasari’s account promoted its author’s native Tuscany as a centre of artistic excellence to rival Greece and Rome. Its author ranked the artists he listed according to the alleged quality and standard of their work. This reflected Vasari’s belief that art passed from primitive, through good to excellent, or what has been described as a ‘single narrative of evolutionary progress’ (Edwards 1999: 3). In other words, the development of art was perceived as qualitative – from the Middle Ages it got better and better until it reached a peak of perfection in the work of Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564) and Raphael (1483–1520). E A R LY I N S T R U C T I O N M A N U A L S I N M A K I N G A R T There were other and earlier accounts of what artists did. Cennino Cennini’s (c.1370–c.1440) instruction manual The Craftman’s Handbook (c.1390) looked at the physical process of actually making a fresco or panel painting, including mixing the pigments and preparing the ground. Taking an architectural example and using a biological model of growth and decay, Antonio Manetti (1423–91) traced its history from early Greece and Rome to its supposed decline in the late Roman period (Kultermann 1993: 11). Some of these early ideas and manuals were relevant for later art historians and philosophers, who revisited issues of artistic meaning and value. For example, the Italian art historian and antiquarian Giovanni Bellori (1615–96) applied Plato’s idea of the existence of perfect or pure forms as a basis for his theory of artistic beauty. For Bellori, to capture an ideal form, the artist should observe and select the best examples from nature. These could then be combined to create a composite whole which was based on neither the inventions of fantasy nor the imperfections of nature. Other classical writers provided a source for Renaissance commentaries on art; for example, Leone Battista Alberti (1404–72) drew upon the Roman architect Vitruvius’ (c.80/70 BCE?–c.25 BCE) book De Architectura;
Slide 45: 22 art theories and art histories and the writings of Pliny the Elder (CE 23–79) provided a source for Classical Greek artists such as Praxiteles (fourth century BCE). Although Italian writers and artists dominated the early historiography of art, there were exceptions. The Flemish painter and writer Karel van Mander (1548–1606) published his Book on Picturing in 1604. His treatise was instrumental in establishing the canon for Dutch and Flemish painting from the fifteenth century, central to which was Jan van Eyck’s (c.1385–1441) use of oil-based pigments. In addition to painting, Mander recognised the contribution of printing and drawing, including both within his categorisations. WINCKELMANN, ART HISTORY AND THE ENLIGHTENMENT The origins of art history with claims to being an empirical and rational discipline can be dated to the eighteenth century. Like archaeology, art history arose in part from the cultural politics of the Enlightenment and antiquarian interests promoted by the Grand Tour. The many objets d’art and, in some cases, fragments of entire classical ruins such as the Athenian Parthenon brought home by European travellers provided the impetus for study, comparison and classification. The excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii provided antiquarians like Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–68) with the opportunity for detailed, object-based study. Winckelmann is generally regarded as the founder of modern art history in recognition of his attempts to apply scientific methodology to the study of sculpture and architecture (Heyer and Norton 1987: xxi; Potts 1994). His first book, Reflections on the Painting and Sculpture of the Greeks (1755) established the Greek cultural ideal, and his study The History of the Art of Antiquity (1764) became central to the neo-classical movement. Winckelmann underlined the importance of direct study of the object and sensitivity to the actual process and skill of its creation. His attempt to link art with the ideas and values of its period provided the basis for his recognition as the first cultural historian (Fernie 1995: 71). Although based for much of his later life in Rome where he converted to Roman Catholicism, Winckelmann’s contribution to art history was formative in another sense. His work established a German language-based tradition in art history which remained dominant well into the twentieth century.
Slide 46: art theories and art histories 23 ART AS AN EXPRESSION OF THE WILL TO C R E AT E How did the style of aesthetic objects – whether sculpture, painting or architecture – actually come about? This was a central concern for the Austrian art historian and art conservationist Aloïs Riegl (1858–1905). Riegl’s answer was to formulate the idea of ‘kunstwollen’ – understood as the ‘immanent artistic drive’ (Ostrow 2001: 7). This artistic impulse defined the ideas, practices and styles of art, but it was also culturally specific and not readily transferable in its original form to other societies. Riegl believed that artistic style could not simply be reduced to technological cause and effect, but that it conveyed the actual world-view and attitudes of those who made it. This idea was initially used to account for changes in decorative motifs (Problems of Style: Foundations for a History of Ornament (1893)), but was later extended in scope in Riegl’s second book, Late Roman Art Industry (1901). The principle of ‘kunstwollen’ was subsequently adapted by the German art historian Wilhelm Worringer (1881–1965). In his polemical study Abstraction and Empathy (1908), Worringer argued that stylised and geometric art was part of an alienated response by the people of older civilisations and cultures to their surroundings. By contrast, naturalistic-looking or classical art, such as Greek or Roman sculpture, was symptomatic of a relatively harmonious or empathetic relationship between peoples and their environment. Worringer’s thesis was widely circulated among the German and British avant-garde, and was of particular influence on the ideas of T.E. Hulme (1883–1917), Percy Wyndham Lewis (1882–1957) and Henri Gaudier-Brzeska (1891–1915). AESTHETIC COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Although Worringer’s ideas were highly generalised and subsequently fell out of fashion, his thesis had attempted to account for stylistic difference and contrast. Among the art historians who is generally regarded as having made the most significant and durable contribution to the discipline’s methodology was Heinrich Wölfflin (1864–1944). In his major work, Principles of Art History (1915) Wölfflin expounded a basis for comparative visual analysis which followed
Slide 47: 24 art theories and art histories the opposition of the linear and the painterly. From this he set out five pairs of concepts which are as follows: • • • • • linear versus painterly plane versus recession closed form versus open form multiplicity versus unity absolute clarity versus clarity. Although these terms were devised to characterise successive periods of High Renaissance and Baroque art, they have since become widely used in the description and comparison of art outside Wölfflin’s original formulation. For instance, we might describe Jacques-Louis David’s (1748–1825) painting Oath of the Horatii, F 1784 (Figure 12, p. 63) as highly linear because the entire composition is so clearly dominated by the use of outline and the picking out of individual objects or detail, rather than the use of painterly and tonal effect which is largely limited to the female figures on the right margin. By contrast, we might describe Sargent’s portrait F (Figure 21, p. 145) as painterly for the opposite reason. Or to take the third descriptive pair, the painting by Agnolo Bronzino F (1503–72) (Figure 15, p. 91) is an example of an open form in which the arrangement and gestures of the figure grouping deliberately point out to us and beyond the picture frame. By contrast, David’s painting is framed around the central figure grouping which is the principal focus of our gaze. Such comparisons and orderings only make sense in relation to each other. Although these opposing pairs have a general descriptive value, they were established for a distinct tradition of mimetic or naturalistic art – Renaissance and Baroque. Similarly, they follow particular assumptions about the extent to which artistic and cultural styles evolve in disaffinity or contrast with what went before. Wölfflin emphasised the importance of actually looking at specifics rather than mapping out highly generalised schemas like Worringer, and to a lesser extent Riegl. His comparative model and a belief in an empirically based art history which necessitated wide-ranging, interdisciplinary knowledge set the benchmark for European art history in the first half of the twentieth century.
Slide 48: art theories and art histories 25 A R T H I S T O R Y I N T H E L AT E N I N E T E E N T H A N D E A R LY T W E N T I E T H C E N T U R I E S From this brief and necessarily selective overview, various points can be made about the origins and general character of later nineteenth- and early twentieth-century art history. First, it was a discipline dominated by continental thinkers (Austrian, German and Swiss), who in turn drew upon a broader intellectual tradition rooted in idealist philosophy. In practice, this meant that the study of art and the wider realm of the aesthetic – how we respond to what we see – was based on particular assumptions concerning value and meaning. For example, aside from its intrinsic interest, art was valued because it was considered to be a universal and humanistic expression of our central place and unique identity within nature and the world, a sentiment re-stated by the German-born art historian Erwin Panofsky (1892–1968) (1993: 3–31). Second, the category of objects accorded artistic status reflected a general consensus about the central importance of a Western and broadly Mediterranean canon of art making, with its origins in classical Greek and Roman culture. In turn, these examples were regarded as the ‘height of artistic value and aesthetic excellence’ (Edwards 1999: 3). Typically, the areas of study or those objects presumed to have aesthetic interest included architecture, sculpture, painting, print-making and decorative design – an ordering little changed from Vasari’s day. Despite differing areas of emphasis, the category of art was understood as a relatively bounded and unproblematic term – it was broadly something which different cultures and people did. A central aspect to an art historian’s role was therefore to describe, categorise and place such artefacts in relation to the established (Western) canon determined by the various European academies throughout the preceding centuries. Third, there was a central and recognisable art historical tradition. In other words, it was a case of ‘art history’ rather than ‘art histories’. As we shall see, these overall characteristics were important since they established an academic orthodoxy with broadly shared assumptions and values. Among these shared assumptions was a belief that art history was primarily concerned with stylistic analysis (‘connoisseurship’) whether situated in relation to the
Slide 49: 26 art theories and art histories artist, the broader culture or an even more generalised sense of the zeitgeist – the spirit of the time. This characterisation of art history as a broadly formalist discipline was to be revised and disputed in the early 1930s by a politicised generation of émigré art historians for whom art was a profoundly ideological phenomenon which mediated particular social and economic relationships. B R I T I S H A R T H I S T O R Y, T H E C O U R TA U L D A N D WARBURG INSTITUTES In Great Britain the origins of art history as an academic discipline are closely bound up with private philanthropy and the founding of the Courtauld Institute in 1932. Its initial sponsors were the AngloAmerican grandee and former Tory minister Lord Arthur Lee of Fareham, the art collector Sir Robert Witt and the millionaire textile magnate Samuel Courtauld. The Courtauld Institute’s early curriculum was survey based and linear – ‘from the pyramids to Picasso’ (Carter 2002: 86) and broadly formalist – concerned with the object itself and its broader place within the classical canon. Such an ethos was to some extent a reflection of the more empirical character of British cultural life – sceptical of abstract theory and lacking the continental legacy of a classical sociology associated with figures like Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), Karl Marx (1818–83) and Max Weber (1864–1920) (Anderson 1969: 218–29). The other major base for art historical study in London was the Warburg Library (and subsequently research institute) established in 1933 and named after the independent scholar and polymath Aby Warburg (1866–1929). Of the two institutions, the Warburg was more directly indebted to some of the ideas of the continental thinkers outlined here, but like the Courtauld, it became one of the major destinations for émigré art historians arriving in the country and seeking relevant employment. C O N N O I S S E U R S H I P A N D AT T R I B U T I O N Connoisseurship – a belief in good taste and judgement gained through extensive experience and contact with works of art – was central to the ethos of both institutes and to the overall character of
Slide 50: art theories and art histories 27 nineteenth- and early twentieth-century art history. Typically it is a concern for stylistic analysis (how the object looks) and identifying its date, authorship and record of ownership (or provenance), in order to establish claims to authenticity. Connoisseurship explores the ‘quality’ of the art under consideration and how it relates to other ‘pictorial traditions to which it belongs’ (Fernie 1995: 330–31). Influential exponents of this approach included the American scholar Bernard Berenson, Giovanni Cavalcaselle (1820–97) and Giovanni Morelli (1816–91). Connoisseurship emphasised the importance of correctly ordering works of art and their proper attribution – the identification of an original work from a copy or fake. Whilst it may seem self-evident that art history is crucially concerned with looking, connoisseurship established stylistic analysis and attribution as central to the discipline, frequently excluding broader considerations of context and social meaning. Before the widespread use of X-ray technology and more sophisticated methods for accurately dating wood panels and stretchers, connoisseurship necessarily depended upon the acuity of visual judgement. For example, at various times in their careers art historians like Anthony Blunt (1907–89) and John Pope-Hennessy (1913–98) staked their reputations on making correct attributions within their respective areas of expertise. Blunt was famously involved in what became a very bitter dispute with another connoisseur, Sir Denis Mahon (b. 1910), initially over the dating of Poussin’s (1594–1665) work and subsequently over the interpretation of the artist’s entire career (Carter 2002: 421–34). The legacy of connoisseurship was also apparent in the display and collecting of art works. Throughout the nineteenth century, the development of art historical research had been influenced by the museums which relied upon experts for the classification and dating of their collections. Given the vogue for formalist analysis, the gallery visitor of the day was customarily given little more than the name of the artist or school and the date. In some cases, even the titles of works exhibited were omitted (Holly 1984: 25). THE LIMITS OF CONNOISSEURSHIP One of the principal assumptions of connoisseurship is that, within certain variations, artistic styles remain essentially distinctive (Hatt
Slide 51: 28 art theories and art histories and Klonk 2006: 60). However, meaning and interpretation are as context-bound as the production and composition of art. Also, allowing for the various purposes which commissioned works were required to serve, artistic styles vary over time. For these reasons, it has become increasingly rare for attributions based purely on stylistic appearance to be made without other forms of corroboration. Additionally, in what is a largely unregulated international market, there are issues of commercial liability for both vendor and purchaser and for the safeguarding of professional reputations against misattribution. That said, in these cases, there are philosophical arguments which question the tendency to immediately identify a high-quality copy or forgery as automatically inferior to the original. Some commentators have also questioned the apparent fetish for verifiable originals, particularly in a culture based upon visual reproduction and re-presentation. More generally, innovations in dating technology, the accumulation of more evidence and research, routine cleaning and restoration programmes within collections and museums, as well as a less deferential social culture, have all tended to question the principle of uncorroborated attributions. For example, the ongoing Rembrandt Research Project established by the Dutch government in the 1980s has made a considerable number of high-profile de-attributions from the artist’s oeuvre with repercussions for individual collectors, museums and, most importantly, for the art historical understanding of Rembrandt’s (1606–69) own studio practice (http://www.rembrandtresearchproject.org). ART HISTORY AND THE 1930s DIASPORA British art history was radicalised and in one sense professionalised throughout the 1930s by the influx of émigré talent seeking refuge from the Nazi threat in Germany and from totalitarian regimes in Soviet Russia and elsewhere. This diaspora provided some of the most eminent and distinguished contributors not just to art history, but to British culture overall (Snowman 2002). Some of the most well known figures included Walter Friedländer (1873–1966), Sir Ernst Gombrich (1909–2001), Erwin Panofsky, Nikolaus Pevsner (1902–83), Karl Popper (1902–94) and Aby Warburg. No less influential were Marxist art historians such as Frederick (Frigyes) Antal
Slide 52: art theories and art histories 29 (1887–1954), Arnold Hauser (1892–1978), Francis Klingender (1907–55) and Meyer Schapiro (1904–96), whose concept of a social history of art challenged the formalist orientation of British and American art history which typified the period. Such an influx of talent irrevocably changed the intellectual perspectives and aspirations of art history and other humanities disciplines from the 1930s onwards. Whilst Marxist art historians stressed art’s enmeshed, ideological role within social relations, others such as Gombrich explored the contribution of perceptual psychology to aesthetics and stylistic analysis, or like Panofsky, attempted to situate art within a humanistic framework. However, all acknowledged the philosophical tradition of art history mentioned earlier, even if they were critical of its assumptions and premises. Whilst the hiatus of the Cold War period revised the political and military map, it also retrenched other ideas and values, marking the period from the later 1940s through to the early 1960s as one of relative social conservatism. In art history, this was reflected by the dominance and institutionalisation of abstract art and a prevailing and supportive critical practice derived from the ideas of the American art critics Clement Greenberg (1909–94) and Michael Fried (b. 1939) (Harris 1994: 62–63). Aspects of this will be discussed in Chapter 2. THE NEW ART HISTORY? This was the collective name given to the radicalising impact of a range of critical theory – from structuralism to anthropology, psychoanalysis, feminism, Marxism and postcolonial critiques – evident across art history from the early 1970s (Rees and Borzello 1986: 1–10). In both direct and more nuanced ways, these perspectives arose from the very different social and political ethos of the late 1960s which witnessed student revolt, the war in Vietnam and the American civil rights movement. Any attempt at briefly characterising such a significant reorientation in art history risks homogenising the very plurality which typified the work and approaches undertaken by its proponents. Among the shifts in approach was a greater awareness of the materiality of art and visual culture as commodity and object, within broader social, economic and psychoanalytic frameworks. Dawn Ades, among the contributors to the first anthology, which explicitly
Slide 53: 30 art theories and art histories addressed the impact of these new trends, characterised the redefinition of art this way: It is taken that art is not hermetic and autonomous, but bound up with the social and economic movements of the time, as well as conditioned by both artistic tradition and aesthetic ideology. (Ades 1986: 13) As various art historians have noted, the New Art History appellation proved misleading in various ways. On one level, it suggested that what was being replaced was in some sense without all or any of the intellectual insights then being discussed. Additionally, the inference was that new perspectives had seamlessly superseded a singular and unitary academic discipline called art history. However, what the label did attempt to register was the extent to which many of the traditional presuppositions of art history and the scope of its academic focus was no longer representative – of either the changed contexts of artistic production or the impact of different intellectual paradigms then being felt across the humanities disciplines. . . . AND SINCE THE ‘NEW ART HISTORY’? How can we characterise the art histories of today? What of the legacy of the radicalising insights and challenges of the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s? Have they too become part of a new orthodoxy? There is no longer, and has not been since the 1930s, a recognisably homogeneous art historical discipline, although the distinction became more explicit from the 1970s onwards. There is instead what Andrew Hemingway has recently characterised as a ‘liberal pluralism, an attitude that fosters tolerance of a range of different perspectives’ (2006a: 1). The scope and range of objects, practices and issues addressed by art and cultural historians have never been wider or more inclusive. In recent decades, art history has demonstrated a tangible sense of renewal and self-criticism which has accompanied record levels of public interest and engagement in the work of artists and the institutions of the art world. The subjects and themes of contemporary art history suggest an awareness and reflexivity about the asymmetries of cultural power, gender, ethnicities and the value-forming role of
Slide 54: art theories and art histories 31 museums and art-related institutions. At its best, much contemporary art theory and practice has also been galvanised by an awareness of the imperatives of the global village and the new issues, dislocations and diasporas of our own times. Although the academic discourse of art history has frequently been bound up with the preoccupations of Western culture, the global economic and cultural shifts of recent decades underline the extent to which art and art history are not the preserves of the first or even of the developing world. SUMMARY Art is an evaluative term which derives from specific cultural histories, conventions and linguistic usages. Both the Western concept of fine art and the academic discipline of art history which arose from it, have their origins in the assumptions, values and aspirations of the European Enlightenment. Theories of aesthetics – what art was generally considered to be and what it should set out to do – whether understood as mimetic representation, expression, significant form, aesthetic response or situated as a pragmatic institutional category – are closely and necessarily interwoven with the history, institutionalisation, and avant-garde practices of art itself. This symbiotic relationship stretches from the eighteenth century to the postmodern, and its legacy is still very much with us. Hegemonic within America and Europe, these ideas and their related institutions typically marginalised the aesthetic practices of non-Western countries and peoples, whilst frequently appropriating the art of the colonised to a pre-existing template of the primitive. A largely formalist and connoisseurial pursuit throughout much of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the academic discipline of art history was radicalised in the 1970s, registering the impact of various continental theories, including gender, psychoanalytic, Marxist and poststructuralist critiques which systematically interrogated and challenged extant assumptions and biases. In some cases, these ideas reconnected, albeit in new contexts, with earlier social and political art histories which had been all but erased by formalism, or marginalised by intervening Cold War priorities.
Slide 55: 32 art theories and art histories It follows that art historical debates about the status, meaning and value of what artists actually do (or have done) invariably implicate these histories and pre-suppositions, even when they do not acknowledge doing so. Although a truism, all art histories mediate the interests and agendas, concealed or apparent, of those who articulate them. Like the making of art, it is a realm which is neither value free nor transcendent of human culture. FURTHER READING The New Art History: A Critical Introduction, by Jonathan Harris (London and New York, 2001), is a comprehensive guide to the developments and changes which have characterised the academic discipline of art history over the last thirty years or so. It explores in considerable detail, and in relation to key texts, the impact and interaction of Marxist, feminist and psychoanalytic ideas and the various contributions made by contemporary art historians and critics. For those interested in finding out more detail on some of the art historians mentioned in this chapter, the companion volumes by Chris Murray, Key Writers on Art: From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century (London and New York, 2002) and Key Writers on Art: The Twentieth Century (London and New York, 2003) offer succinct and very helpful bibliographic entries with guides to further reading. This chapter has considered art history as an academic discipline as well as issues in aesthetics – theories and attempts to define art. Art History Versus Aesthetics, edited by James Elkins (London and New York, 2006), provides new perspectives on both areas by presenting in conversation the views of ten art historians and ten aestheticians. The book’s unusual structure and approach are very useful in teasing out points of agreement, tension and symbiosis between both disciplines. A recent glossary of essential terms and ideas is Art History: The Key Concepts, by Jonathan Harris (London and New York, 2006), This chapter touches upon historic differences of emphasis (as well as points of similarity) between art history as an academic discipline and the institution of the museum. For a further and wide-ranging discussion of the subject see The Two Art Histories: The Museum and the University, edited by Charles W. Haxthausen (New Haven CT and London, 2002).
Slide 56: 2 FORMALISM, MODERNISM AND MODERNITY INTRODUCTION I’ve seen things you people wouldn’t believe: attack ships on fire off the shoulder of Orion. I watched C-beams glitter in the dark near the Tannhauser gate. All those moments will be lost in time, like tears in rain. (Roy Batty’s valedictory speech, from the film Blade Runner (1982) adapted from Philip K. Dick’s book, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (1968)) The things we see and remember are among the most durable of human experiences. This chapter explores aspects of formalism – the concern with composition and medium in art, rather than with subject matter – as the basis upon which we should respond to and value art. How might we relate formalist ideas, and what became their powerful institutionalisation through Modernist theory, to the art of the last century or so? What has been their legacy for the development of art history and for the actual exhibition and display of art works? To what extent were such ideas representative of the avant-garde art produced under the conditions of modernity?
Slide 57: 34 formalism, modernism and modernity THE FORMAL COMPONENTS OF PAINTING AND DESIGN Before we look at some of the broader aspects of formalist theory, what exactly do we mean by the ‘form’ of a painting, sculpture or installation? How might we set about describing, in formal terms, examples taken from these very different media? The formal parts of a painting include line, tone, shape, texture and colour (Pooke and Whitham 2003: 23–29). Single point perspective and the illusion of space and recession on a two-dimensional surface provide depth. When these attributes are combined they provide various compositional effects such as balance, rhythm and harmony. For example, in describing the style of a painting, we consider the ways in which its visual and technical qualities blend in order to give a particular look or appearance. F Consider David’s painting, Oath of the Horatii, 1784 (Figure 12, p. 63). Disregard, if possible, the painting’s subject matter, but consider instead how the scene has been organised and presented, using some of the visual components just mentioned. You may find it helpful to reference some of the linear and painterly terms associated with Wölfflin which we mentioned in Chapter 1. However, even from a casual glance, a brief listing of formal details and devices might include: • • The left-hand figures are linear and almost sculptural in presentation. Tonal values (the contrast between light and shade) are used to model and define the figures – both those in the centre of the composition and those to the right. David has used tonal variation to highlight or accent the composition’s dramatic focus, encouraging the eye to move from left to right. Although colour is used within the composition to highlight the central figures (such as the patriarch’s red cloak), it is otherwise secondary to line and tone. The relatively shallow depth and spatial recession underscores the relationship between the figures and the classical architectural background. Although the central grouping of figures initially looks asymmetrical, the overall composition is balanced. The trio to • • •
Slide 58: formalism, modernism and modernity 35 • the left is counterpoised by the three female figures in the right foreground, one of whom envelops the two children. The central figure provides the dramatic focus whilst compositionally linking the painting’s left and right sections. Each arch provides a backdrop to specific sections of the painting, whilst collectively framing the entire scene. The overall composition is defined by strong intersecting vertical, diagonal and horizontal lines, variously suggested by the architectural background, the opposing angles of the figures, the positioning and direction of the weaponry and the floor’s rectilinear and square patterning. We might also mention some of the stylistic features of David’s example, such as the defined musculature of the men and his attempt to depict the folds, weight and texture of the garments worn by the women. One commentator has noted the ‘anatomical precision of the father’s outstretched calf, or the gauzy sheerness of the mother’s headdress’ (Rawlinson 2006: 31). The extent to which David has taken some of the compositional features used to depict his figures from classical treatments of the body is apparent if we consider a Greek representation of Zeus, F copy after a fifth-century BCE original (Figure 3, p. 7). The sculpture depicts a partially robed deity. The sculpture is in the round – i.e. sculpted around 360° of its surface rather than just on one plane as a relief sculpture would be. The classical sculpture represents an older, bearded man, comparable to the patriarch in David’s painting. Particularly notable in both figures is their stylised, tightly curled hair and emphasised physical form. Other comparative features include the linear folds of the robes suggesting the texture of the fabric, and the positioning of the over-garment or cloak over the arm. Also note the similarities in the design of the sandals in both works, again a traditional Roman motif. The raised arms of the male figures in David’s painting suggest a dramatic focus which can be compared to classical sculptures depicting heroes and standing gods, especially the Tyrannicides, fifth century BCE (heroes of Classical Athens, Museo Archeologico, Naples) and the Belvedere Apollo, fourth century BCE (Vatican Museum, Rome). David visited Naples in 1779, claiming the experience changed him radically (Lee 1999: 46–47). The costume of the women in the painting also
Slide 59: 36 formalism, modernism and modernity conforms to classical forms, comparable for instance to the depiction of women and goddesses on the Parthenon Marbles, fifth century BCE (British Museum, London). VISUAL RESOURCES The websites of the British Museum Compass, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, and the Paris Louvre allow access to their collections for study. Search the collections for Greek and Roman art at: http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass http://www.metmuseum.org http://www.louvre.fr/llv/commun/home_flash.jsp Many other museums and galleries have their collections online. Use these to gain quick access to studying works of art. These examples of classical sculpture attempt a highly naturalistic treatment of their subject matter. However, because the emphasis is on capturing a classical story or a mythological deity, we tend to look through the use of the chosen medium – oil on canvas and marble respectively – to the subject or narrative, before considering the technical means used to achieve it. In other words, we are asked to suspend our disbelief, and forget that what we are actually looking at is pigment on canvas or a piece of elaborately carved stone. As noted in the last chapter, among the consequences of Western art’s increasing academicisation throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was an emphasis on defining pictorial space illusionistically, rather than on registering the materiality of the medium through which it was achieved (Brettell 1999: 14). This distinction was to inform one of the most influential aesthetic theories of the twentieth century – but more of this later. ABSTRACTION AS A PROCESS When looking and thinking about these examples, we should not forget that the actual planning and execution of a painting, sculpture or installation is both a physical and a conceptual process, rather than just an outcome. That is, the artist might work through
Slide 60: formalism, modernism and modernity 37 the formal and compositional possibilities offered by the subject or thematic they wish to pursue. Similarly, various options and limitations may arise from the choice of a particular medium, the exploration of the idea and the institutional context in which the work is to be exhibited or displayed. To illustrate the idea of abstraction as process, consider the oil on canvas paintings War Memorial I and War Memorial II, 2006 F (Figure 4 and Figure 5, p. 38) by Roger Hill (b. 1942) and the photoF graph of the same subject (Figure 6, p. 39). In War Memorial I, Hill has selected key compositional motifs and forms: the trees in the front left foreground, the white weatherboarded cottages with their ochre tile roofs and the clearly delineated contours of the war memorial. These motifs are tonally and texturally differentiated, with depth and space provided by the curved and receding line of the road. Now look at War Memorial II. Stylistically, although these compositional motifs are still apparent they are less defined and in some cases fragmented. The specific features which were clearly apparent in the first painting meld into each other to form a mosaic of shapes across and around the canvas, with foreground, background and horizon line less differentiated. Although there is a suggestion of depth, the pigment texture or impasto in War Memorial II makes the materiality of the painted surface even more explicit. Describing the ideas and processes behind these works, the painter notes: Every subject offers reasons for colour, shape and texture . . . I can explore in paint, think in terms of paint as an alternative to a purely representational view. (Hill 2006) If we compare both these paintings with a photograph of the subject, we can see the extent to which the alternative to a highly naturalistic treatment inevitably involves a process of simplification and the privileging of particular formal and textual effects. These examples remind us that abstraction is a process involving aesthetic judgements about arrangement and composition which are made visible by the work and through the use of the medium. Also, we can W make discriminations between art which is semi-figurative (War Memorial I) and that which we might describe as semi-abstract
Slide 61: Figure 4 War Memorial I, Roger Hill, 2006, oil on canvas, 55.9 × 45.7cm (artist’s collection), © the artist. Figure 5 War Memorial II, Roger Hill, 2006, oil on canvas, 61 × 45.7cm (artist’s collection), © the artist.
Slide 62: formalism, modernism and modernity 39 Figure 6 War Memorial, Robertsbridge, East Sussex, 2006, © photograph Diana Newall. W (War Memorial II). In doing so, we recognise a spectrum of formal and technical practice within and across various kinds of art making, which extends from naturalism through to the semi-figurative, the semi-abstract and then on to total abstraction. To close this section, consider Construction in Black and White, F 1989 (Figure 7, p. 40) by George Dannatt (b. 1915). This relief construction is made of wood and card and is painted in flat black and white. Dannatt follows a particular tradition of geometric construction which typified aspects of avant-garde art practice from the 1920s and 1930s onwards. Originally trained as a chartered surveyor, Dannatt also worked as a professional music critic for several years, before turning seriously to painting. The close observational concerns of both former careers are apparent in his work, much of which combines geometric precision with a frequently lyrical approach to form, balance and harmony. His stylistic allegiance was to the West Penwith (St Ives) post-war abstract school, especially the work of the painter John Wells (1907–2000) and the sculptor Denis Mitchell (1912–93).
Slide 63: 40 formalism, modernism and modernity Construction in Black and White explores spatial and formal asymmetries in which the raking shadows created by the construction’s shallow relief combine to give depth and a sense of enhanced volume. Unlike the paintings just considered, we are presented with an entirely abstract arrangement which depends upon the formal and spatial inter-relationship of black and white squares and rectangles for its aesthetic effects. Figure 7 Construction in Black and White, George Dannatt, 1989, relief construction, wood, card, flat black and white paint, 18.5 × 14.8cm (private collection), © the artist.
Slide 64: Figure 8 Birthday greeting card design for John Wells, George Dannatt, 1977, oils on card, 13.3 × 10.1cm (private collection), © the artist.
Slide 65: 42 formalism, modernism and modernity Another example of Dannatt’s approach to abstraction can be seen in a 1977 birthday greeting design and related preparatory F studies for his friend, the painter John Wells (Figure 8, p. 41). Choosing a powerful visual contrast between a yellow background and black shapes and lines, Dannatt combines irregular geometric forms with three asymmetrically positioned circles, the largest of which dominates the composition. The interior space of the largest circle is bisected with angular shapes and lines, some of which suggest movement and direction like vectors on a map. The interconnection of the various compositional forms and the considerable care taken with their positioning are especially evident in the two preparatory pencil studies for the completed design. In this example, and probably stemming from his close interest in music studies, Dannatt explores variations on original themes. The birthday greetings card evolved from a number of earlier and more experimental drawings and paintings which reflected aspects of Wells’ own painterly approach and interest in ‘texture’ (Dannatt 2006). Looking carefully at these abstract examples and attempting to describe what hits our retina, helps us to understand how these works were made and what aesthetic effects they produce. Regardless of what other meanings or connotations they may have, when we first encounter entirely abstract works of art, we primarily rely upon our visual response to the juxtaposition of forms and colours and to the other compositional elements mentioned at the start of this chapter. FORMAL LANGUAGE, DESIGN AND SCULPTURE The various artistic examples just discussed underline the primary experience of looking, through which we register the particularities of media, texture, composition, dimension and, in the case of constructions and sculpture, judgements about weight and volume. Consider for example the abstract cubist design for a F tray (Figure 9, p. 43) completed under the auspices of the London-based Omega Workshop c.1913–19. Like many Omega products, it does not have an attributed designer, reflecting a belief that much of the best pre-modern artisanship was collaborative and anonymous.
Slide 66: Figure 9 Cubist design for a tray, Omega Workshop, c.1913–19, graphite, watercolour, body colour on paper, 28.2 × 20cm, © The Samuel Courtauld Trust, Courtauld Institute of Art, London.
Slide 67: 44 formalism, modernism and modernity Composed using graphite, watercolour and bodycolour on paper, the tray design uses a limited colour range mostly comprising muted greys, and a beige-pink background with blue highlights which recalls the monochromatic palette of early cubist paintings. However, the systematic re-thinking of space and volume undertaken by Picasso and Braque in c.1909–12 is decoratively adapted with a broad, irregular mosaic of interconnecting and intersecting shapes. Here the concern is less with spatial and formal analysis than with a pleasing, modern-looking pattern for a functional and practical object. The stylistic influence of Cubism is also apparent in Sailor with Guitar, 1917–18 (http://www.artandarchitecture.org.uk/images/ conway/6f53bb72.html), made by the Lithuanian-born sculptor Jacques Lipchitz (1891–1973). Lipchitz moved to Paris in 1909 and subsequently to America as the Nazi threat to Europe increased. Whilst in Paris, Lipchitz met, and was heavily influenced by, Picasso and Juan Gris (1887–1927), with the inspiration for many of his sculptures arising from specific cubist paintings, themes and collages. Fascinated by its analytical and spatial possibilities, Lipchitz subsequently became the most consistent practitioner of a cubist idiom within the medium of sculpture (Pütz 2002: 7–8). Keeping in mind some of these influences, we might consider the formal composition of this cubist-orientated sculpture. In bronze, Sailor with Guitar is an abstract sculpture, comprising a series of interlocking planes which provide volume and mass. It has a largely closed rather than open form – that is with the exception of the elbow angle on the right. We cannot see through the composition which stands self-enclosed and totem-like on its base. The vertical axis along which Lipchitz has made his sculpture reminds us that its inspiration, at least, is the static human form, but the angularity of its intersecting planes renders it dynamic and mobile, with its spatial inter-relationships seemingly unresolved and fluid. Describing one of the shifts which occurred in sculptural practice in the twentieth century, the art historian Rosalind Krauss has written: The logic of sculpture, it would seem is inseparable from the logic of the monument. By virtue of this logic a sculpture is a commemorative representation. It sits in a particular place. (Krauss 1988: 279)
Slide 68: formalism, modernism and modernity 45 Figure 10 Square Relief, Naum Gabo, c.1920–21/1937–38, Perspex, in Perspex box 11.7 × 11.6 × 6.8cm, courtesy Annely Juda Fine Art, the works of Naum Gabo, © Nina Williams. This characterisation relates to academic sculpture, public and monumental examples of which we can see along London’s Thames Embankment or the Seine in Paris. But Krauss goes on to describe the effects of ‘modernity’ – that is the experience of living in the twentieth century which is registered sculpturally as a: loss of site, producing the monument as abstraction, the monument as pure maker or base, functionally placeless and largely self-referential. (Krauss 1988: 280) Although a sculpture rather than a monument, the form and appearance of Sailor with Guitar mediates this onset of modernity.
Slide 69: 46 formalism, modernism and modernity Although the title indicates its subject matter, the only real visual clues appear to be the raised ribs which suggest a sailor’s striped chemise and the rounded base of the guitar. For practical reasons it has a base, but the absence of a plinth renders it placeless – it could be exhibited or shown anywhere. The near-total abstraction of Sailor with Guitar asserts its self-referentiality – the sculpture is primarily an exploration of form for its own sake. Its medium has not been fashioned to be seen through as the technical means to a F narrative end, as in David’s Oath of the Horatii (Figure 12, p. 63). To take one final example in this section, consider Square Relief, F c.1921 (Figure 10, p. 45), by the Russian-born sculptor Naum Gabo (1890–1977). Gabo’s frequently small-scale works are termed ‘constructions’ – a reference to the ethos of their making and an underpinning conviction in the socially recuperative powers of art at a time of war and revolution. The original version of Square Relief no longer exists, although there are two other extant versions from the 1930s (Sanderson and Lodder 1985: 208). This 1937 replica of Gabo’s earlier construction is made from perspex on an anodised aluminium base – modern materials for a new age. Compared to the Lipchitz piece, it is slight, delicate and elegantly insubstantial. Both artists claimed Cubism as a point of inspiration for their work. Gabo’s conception of sculpture arose from a belief in ‘light, time and space as sculptural elements’ – considerations which are present in cubist paintings and collages of the time (Nash 1985: 9). Discoveries in science and physics provided Gabo and innovators like him with an entirely new range of geometries. However, Gabo combined these ideas with an intuitive and subjective approach to form, through which his constructions appear to defy gravity and the traditionally vertical and static conception of sculpture. S O M E I S S U E S A R I S I N G F R O M F O R M A L A N A LY S I S From these diverse examples we can make some general points about the use and value of formal analysis and description. It: • underlines the materiality of the art object – in the case of a painting it typically reminds us that we are looking at a
Slide 70: formalism, modernism and modernity 47 • • • particular use of a medium (oils, acrylic, gouache, etc.) on a flat surface; explores the specificity of an object – how the various compositional and stylistic features noted earlier have been used and combined in a given example; provides a language or shorthand which can be used to consider aesthetic effects and our response to them. In doing so, we attempt to convey the particularity of what we see and experience – what is it within the composition and texture of a painting, sculpture, design or installation, etc., which engages interest? As noted in Chapter 1, is narrative or mimesis the only thing that we expect from art? privileges style – the appearance of the object. FORMALISM AS ART PRACTICE AND ART THEORY We have considered how exploring the look of art works can provide a useful basis for teasing out how a particular medium, technique or approach has been used or adapted. Formalist vocabulary can also help in attempts to make judgements about aesthetic value or quality – how might we place the object in relation to other examples or perhaps different genres which use the same medium? Close attention to the particularities of any aesthetic object provides an initial point from which we might discuss broader issues of context, meaning and value. By the latter part of the nineteenth century, avant-garde artists and critics were increasingly looking to formalist ideas as part of a broader rejection of academic naturalism and narrative content. The pictorial illusionism and classical subject matter associated with the various academies was ill equipped to mediate the experiences of modernity – the perceived actuality and social conditions of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century life. This altered consciousness in turn arose from the processes of modernisation – accelerating technological and industrial changes initiated by the Industrial Revolution (Harrison 1997: 6). Formalism was not just an aesthetic consequence of social modernity, far-reaching as these effects were. The backward looking art of the academies traded on artifice; it concealed the materiality of painting, rather than exploring the problems inherent in the use
Slide 71: 48 formalism, modernism and modernity of particular media, or which arose when artists attempted to approximate the shapes, colours and structures of their work to the experience of seeing objects in the world around them. Concerns over opticality – how things actually appear to the senses – and structure – how such experiences could be intelligibly orchestrated on a flat surface without resorting to illusionism – typified the work of successive avant-gardes and those associated with them. Artists such as Claude Monet (1840–1926), Édouard Manet (1832–83), Cézanne, Picasso, Derain and Matisse elaborated the semi-abstract and non-representational aspects of art practice. Their work suggested that meaning and value could be achieved in relation to the formal and expressive components and effects of the art work, rather than simply being a judgement which arose from narrative or representational qualities. In other words, formalism as a descriptive and observational technique was elaborated into a broader, if disparate, aesthetic theory. As noted in Chapter 1, there were precedents for this thinking in the connoisseurial tradition associated with art historians like Wölfflin and with collectors such as Berenson. Formalist ideas also underpinned the classificatory ethos of museums and ethnographic collections contemporary with these avant-gardes (Holly 1984: 25). ROGER FRY AND A BRITISH FORMALIST TRADITION In England, Clive Bell, Roger Fry and Desmond MacCarthy (1877– 1952) played major roles in sponsoring and introducing the avantgarde art of Manet and the Post-Impressionists to an Edwardian British public more accustomed to academic painting and illusionism. We might also point to Sidney Colvin (1845–1927), an early advocate of ‘art for art’s sake’, or formalism, which he associated with, among others, the work of the American expatriate artist James McNeill Whistler (1834–1903). Colvin subsequently became Slade Professor and founder of the Cambridge Fine Arts Society. Colvin’s presence at Cambridge has been cited as an early influence on the formalist ideas of Roger Fry (Prettejohn 2005: 159). Fry was an art historian, amateur painter, founding editor of the Burlington Magazine and curator of paintings at New York’s Metropolitan Museum. Fry’s ‘Essay in Aesthetics’ (1909) was his first major statement on the philosophy of art and is generally
Slide 72: formalism, modernism and modernity 49 Figure 11 Still Life with Plaster Cast, Paul Cézanne, c.1894, oil on paper mounted on panel, 70.6 × 57.3cm, © The Samuel Courtauld Trust, Courtauld Institute of Art, London. regarded as one of the most sophisticated statements of a formalist position for its time. For Fry, the aesthetic response involved an engagement with and response to, the various components of design, including tone, rhythm of line, colour, plasticity and form (Gould 2003: 127). Cézanne, on whom Fry published a monograph in 1927, was one of the artists he most rated (see for example Figure 11).
Slide 73: 50 formalism, modernism and modernity Cézanne believed in the importance of strong design in his compositions, a principle which Fry believed had been lost by the Impressionists in their pursuit of purely optical sensations. For similar reasons, Fry advocated other avant-garde work by Georges Seurat (1859–91), Vincent van Gogh (1853–90) and Paul Gauguin (1848–1903) and by cubist artists such as Picasso and Braque – all of whom he regarded as inheritors of the classical tradition of Raphael and Poussin (Fernie 1995: 157). Fry believed that the best art evoked an emotional response which was communicated to the attuned spectator receptive to artistic intention. Like Bell, he generally disparaged the importance of narrative art or the belief it should have a moral or educative purpose. Appointed Slade Professor of Art at Cambridge shortly before his death, Fry’s brand of formalism remained influential within British art and art history. His belief in the progressive autonomy of art and the emphasis given to formal design over representation proved a durable influence on modern abstraction. The prominent British art critic and writer Herbert Read (1893–1968) continued to support a formalist line in his advocacy of British and European artists and sculptors throughout the 1930s and 1940s (Harrison 1985: 218). AVA N T - G A R D E A R T A N D T H E C R I S I S O F TA S T E Across the Atlantic, formalist ideas found an unlikely sponsor in the initially Marxist-inclined thinking of the American art critic Clement Greenberg (1909–94). In his essay, ‘Avant-Garde and Kitsch’ (1939) published in a little-known left-wing magazine, the Partisan Review, Greenberg made what was to become a symbolic and important intervention in an ongoing debate about the political role of art and literature prompted by the slide towards war in Europe and the increasing power of totalitarian regimes in Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union (Harrison and Wood 2003: 539). Greenberg used the pejorative German word kitsch to characterise what he claimed was the low-grade, mass culture produced under both Western capitalism and state-sponsored socialism. Originally a product of the Industrial Revolution which had ‘urbanised the masses’, kitsch included the debased aesthetic supposedly evident in Hollywood cinema, magazine covers, advertisements, jazz and nineteenth-century academic painting. Greenberg claimed that
Slide 74: formalism, modernism and modernity 51 faced with the relentless logic of commercialisation and the coercive demands of totalitarian politics, the distinctive role and contribution of the avant-garde was, as he put it, ‘to keep culture moving in the midst of ideological confusion and violence’ (Greenberg 1986). Greenberg traced the origins of this crisis in taste, and the distinct approach to avant-garde art making which it provoked, back to tendencies apparent in mid-nineteenth-century avant-garde French painting. Looking to recent and contemporary avant-garde artists, Greenberg cited Constantin Brancusi (1876–1957), Cézanne, Matisse, Piet Mondrian (1872–1944), Joan Miró (1893–1983), Braque and Picasso as having created a new art typified by a concern with issues inherent to the medium rather than with illusionism or narrative. A second essay, ‘Towards a Newer Laocoon’ (1940), mapped out what Greenberg believed were some of the distinctive and authentic features of avant-garde art which differentiated it from academic painting and kitsch. Greenberg’s essay referred to a much earlier work by the dramatist Gotthold Lessing (1729–81), and a more recent essay by Irving Babbitt, The New Laokoön: An Essay on the Confusion of the Arts (1910), both of which had considered the distinctions between the visual and the verbal arts. Greenberg’s essay was an attempt to establish whether the very distinctness of abstract art from other art forms could provide the basis for making judgements of aesthetic value (Harrison and Wood 2003: 562). According to Greenberg’s article, the abstract art produced by the avant-garde was characterised by its ‘progressive surrender to the resistance of its medium’ which was most clearly apparent in the flattening out of the picture surface. He continues: the picture plane itself grows shallower and shallower, flattening out and pressing together the fictive planes of depth until they meet . . . upon the real and material plane which is the actual surface of the canvas. (Greenberg 1986 [1940]) According to this argument, faced with the pressures of kitsch and debased popular taste, the logic behind the development of abstract art was its refusal of illusionism and an increasing paring down of painting to the essentials of medium and composition. Among the artists Greenberg mentions as emblematic of this new tendency was
Slide 75: 52 formalism, modernism and modernity the French painter Manet. Describing Manet’s style, Greenberg notes ‘his insolent indifference to his subject’ and continues: Like the Impressionists he saw the problems of painting as first and foremost problems of the medium, and he called the spectator’s attention to this. (Greenberg 1986 [1940]) In the light of Greenberg’s comments about flatness and the refusal of particular painters to conceal the actuality of the painted surface, we might choose to see the sketchy and simplified elements of F Manet’s painting, A Bar at the Folies-Bergère , 1882 (Figure 22 , p. 151), as an articulation of the very avant-garde qualities which Greenberg held had eventually culminated in the entirely abstract work of Jackson Pollock (1912–56). The impossible and dissonant mirror image (far right) underlines the extent to which modern art had ceased to define itself as part of a mimetic tradition of picturemaking (Prettejohn 2005: 157). Greenberg also claimed the work of Cézanne and, more centrally, the legacy of Cubism and those inspired by it – Miró and André Masson (1896–1987) – as symbolic of the avant-garde’s shift from the pictorial assumptions which had underpinned Western art since the Renaissance. Greenberg’s interpretation of formalism became widely known as Modernism. GREENBERG AND THE DOMINANCE OF MODERNISM An acerbic and combative personality, Greenberg played a key role in the subsequent institutionalisation and ascendancy of American abstraction (Marquis 2006). His initial art criticism appeared at a time when what American abstraction there was had yet to achieve any kind of serious or informed evaluation. Greenberg combined a lucid and at times elegant prose style with the utter conviction that his particular characterisation of modern art was the only one valid. For example, in one review, following the logic of modern art’s supposed development, Greenberg eloquently describes ‘Matisse’s cold hedonism and ruthless exclusion of everything but the concrete, immediate sensation’ (Greenberg 1986 [7 June 1947]). Greenberg’s long-running and bitter feud with another contempo-
Slide 76: formalism, modernism and modernity 53 rary critic, Harold Rosenberg (1906–78), arose in part from the latter’s critical characterisation of Abstract Expressionism in terms of its social and political origins, rather than the purely visual and technical (i.e. Modernist) terms on which Greenberg esteemed it (Marquis 2006: 133–37; Orton 1996: 177–203). In his essay ‘The Decline of Cubism’ (1948) Greenberg claimed a symbolic shift had occurred. Noting the lessening quality of work by Picasso and that of other Europe-based artists, Greenberg saw in the rise of new stateside talent, such as that of Pollock, Arshile Gorky (1904–48) and the American abstract sculptor David Smith (1906–65), confirmation of America’s hegemonic position as the home of modern abstraction. In the years which followed, and after the first wave of Abstract Expressionist artists, Greenberg was instrumental in promoting subsequent work by Anthony Caro (b. 1924), Helen Frankenthaler (b. 1928), Morris Louis (1912–62) and Kenneth Noland (b. 1924). In keeping with the idea of Modernism’s inexorable internal logic and historic development, Greenberg had labelled the work of the latter artists, evidence of ‘post-painterly abstraction’ (Harrison and Wood 2003: 774). The classic statement of what became known as his ‘Modernist’ art criticism was Greenberg’s essay of 1961, ‘Modernist Painting’, which claimed its philosophical antecedents from Kant, and the Enlightenment philosopher’s idea of ‘immanent’ criticism or selfcriticism (Barlow 2003: 152). Here Greenberg asserted that Modernist abstraction was typified by, as he put it, ‘the use of the characteristic methods of a discipline to criticise the discipline itself, not in order to subvert it, but to entrench it more firmly in its area of competence’ (Greenberg 1965 in Frascina and Harrison 1992: 5). The invocation of Kant supported Greenberg’s cardinal belief that judgements of taste were intuitive and that issues of subject matter had no relevance to perceptions of aesthetic quality – understood as the ‘disinterested discriminations of value’ (Frascina 1985: 15). The idea of Modernist art as a systematic paring down to the essentials of its medium was used by Greenberg as the retrospective basis for identifying what he regarded as the internal dynamic behind the most successful paintings of the previous century. Some critics have seen this as little more than a convenient rationalisation of Greenberg’s own aesthetic preferences, whilst others have seen it as a prescient identification and ‘well-founded critique’ of innovative
Slide 77: 54 formalism, modernism and modernity technical changes already afoot in the paintings of mid-nineteenthcentury avant-garde painters (Harrison 1985: 218). MODERNISM AND THE WHITE CUBE HANG Modernist ideas were not just influential in asserting a highly selective canon of abstract works, but they determined how those works were shown and displayed in museums and galleries. In 1976, the critic Brian O’Doherty (b. 1934) referred to a ‘white cube’ by which he meant an exhibition space in which there are minimal distractions. In the case of canvases, this typically resulted in carefully lit single-line hangs in which the art had plenty of space to ‘breathe’ or, in the case of installations, plenty of floor space to enable uninterrupted consideration of the art’s formal properties. Characterising this context for Modernist art, O’Doherty writes of: the suave extensions of the space, the pristine clarity, the pictures laid out in a row like expensive bungalows. . . . The pictures recur as reassuringly as the columns in a classic temple. Each demands enough space so that its effect is over before its neighbour’s picks up. (http://www.societyofcontrol.com/whitecube/insidewc2.htm) The precedent for this approach to exhibiting work was set by New York’s Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) which has been described as the ‘paradigmatic Modernist museum’ in its exhibition of a ‘selective tradition’ which endorsed abstract painting as central to its policy of acquisition and display (Frascina 1993a: 81). Regardless of the critical objections to Greenberg’s Modernism and with the exception of the Royal Academy’s summer shows, white cube hangs have since become central to the curatorial and commercial gallery world. OBJECTIONS TO GREENBERG’S FORMALISM As some commentators have noted, in retrospect it may seem strange that such a subjective and exclusive narrative of modern art achieved the durability that it did within American culture. However, between the 1940s and mid-1960s, the critical account of Modernism provided the dominant explanation and history of modern art (Frascina 1985: preface). Greenberg’s mentoring of
Slide 78: formalism, modernism and modernity 55 highly successful artists throughout the 1940s and 1950s was combined with an acute eye and a seductive thesis which asserted the historical logic behind the apparent dominance of American-led Abstract Expressionism. In what was for the history of Modernism useful timing, Greenberg’s allegedly de-politicised advocacy of American artists over an exhausted European avant-garde, furnished the cultural parallel to America’s recently established superpower status. Greenberg’s Modernism appeared to accommodate the increasing conservatism of post-war American culture, the collecting ambitions of its major museums, and the politics of the McCarthy era. The criteria upon which Greenberg’s Modernist canon was based were exclusive and excluding. The contribution of the Surrealist avant-garde was written off as little more than aesthetic stunts and the innovative use of photomontage as a political intervention within the historical avant-gardes such as Constructivism was not recognised. Greenberg perceived Pop as a novelty art and was antagonistic to the increasingly diverse range of conceptual practice which at first challenged, and then superseded, his account of Modernist painting and sculpture from the mid- and later 1960s onwards (see Chapter 7). Greenberg gave no consideration to issues of gender or social causation and scant recognition to the achievements of contemporary women artists like Lee Krasner (1908–84), Hedda Sterne (b. 1916) or Anne Truitt (1921–2004) (Pollock 1996: 245). His account of abstract art similarly denied the role of social history and agency in the formation of debates about value and taste. Instead, Greenberg situated Abstract Expressionism and postpainterly abstraction as the culmination of an internal dynamic or logic of self-criticism whereby artists progressively purified their medium in the pursuit of aesthetic quality. These exclusions were examined by the Marxist art critic and contemporary of Greenberg, Meyer Schapiro, in ‘The Social Bases of Art’ (1936) and ‘The Nature of Abstract Art’ (1937). Schapiro and others like him questioned Greenberg’s justification for isolating art (and aesthetic judgements) from wider debates about social causation and political significance. However, by the time of the Cold War, the ideas of those like Schapiro were marginalised in favour of Greenberg’s Modernist paradigm.
Slide 79: 56 formalism, modernism and modernity ART AFTER GREENBERG It was the zeitgeist. Basically, he was out. He was a formalist, even though he said he wasn’t. He was just a shadow, a negative. By the 1980s, it was as if he didn’t exist anymore. (Collings, 1998) Greenberg’s concept of Modernism was marginalised by the shift from abstraction and two-dimensional art which characterised the later 1960s (see Chapter 7). His ideas were taken up by Michael Fried, who for a time fought an increasingly defensive action against the new postmodern avant-gardes, although more recently his ideas have found some resonance in the qualified formalism of Nick Zangwill (1999). However Collings’ valediction has proved more or less apt, with the contemporary concepts and dynamic of culture entirely alien from anything Greenberg would probably have recognised. In the light of Schapiro’s corrective to Modernism, later social art historians reconsidered those artists like Manet and Gustave Courbet (1819–77) whose work was invoked to justify a Modernist genealogy. The subject and technique of their painting was seen as constitutive of very different concerns – social modernity and dislocation, urban alienation, spectacle and the disorientating effects of Baron Haussmann’s reconstruction of Paris (c.1850–1870s). As Blake and Frascina suggest of this period, ‘artists and critics saw modern social experiences as inseparable from a self-conscious attitude to the means by which those experiences could be represented’ (1993: 53). It was these very different social conjunctions rather than a sanitised concern with flatness for its own sake and issues intrinsic to the medium which were seen to be distinctive of modern avant-garde art. For example, Manet’s dissonant image, A Bar at the Folies-Bergère, F 1882 (Figure 22, p. 151), has been placed in one of the ‘glorified beer halls which came to be known as cafe-concerts’ which proliferated in the newly designed boulevards of Haussmann’s Paris (Clark 1984: 206). The composition registers the flattening glare of electric light, which was replacing gas across the French capital. Its ‘hallucinatory’ quality captures the unreality of an urban spectacle in which widely differing social classes rubbed shoulders contrary to the official protocols of the day.
Slide 80: formalism, modernism and modernity 57 Although Greenberg’s Modernist ideas are no longer widely discussed, at its best, his prose brought clarity and eloquence to writing about art and the specificity of the aesthetic experience. SUMMARY This chapter has explored how formalist analysis and vocabulary can be used to consider compositional and technical concerns within narrative and abstract art. It has noted that formalist ideas developed into an influential theory and account of art, rationalising the move of many avant-garde artists away from naturalistic paradigms which had characterised Western art making since the Renaissance. The most influential version of formalist ideas, Greenberg’s theory of Modernism, asserted a selective canon of the best art on the basis of its systematic paring down and exploration of the medium. This so-called ‘orientation to flatness’ became the central principle by which post-war American abstraction was judged to be the culmination of a distinct and qualitatively superior tradition. Critics of Modernism pointed to its refusal to elaborate the exact basis on which such judgements of taste were made, in addition to the way in which the more politicised and narrativebased avant-gardes of the twentieth century had been overlooked. Additionally, Greenberg’s wilful disregard for art’s social or political context was challenged. Other commentators have noted the extent to which Greenberg’s allegedly de-politicised advocacy of abstract art seemed to mirror post-war American economic and political hegemony. Modernist theory was largely superseded by the advent and eventual dominance of non-painting-based, conceptual art practice which increasingly characterised the late 1960s and 1970s. Subsequent art historical interpretations of some of the artists valorised by Greenberg have revised and questioned Modernist claims. For example, the technical innovations associated with Manet have been interpreted as a mediated response to the external and disparate influence of modernity – the fractured and fragmented experience of urban and metropolitan life, rather than simply a self-referential exploration of form divorced from context. However, whatever the limitations of Modernism, Greenberg did initiate a serious critical discourse which underlined the durability and attraction of formalist ideas in responding to art and the aesthetic.
Slide 81: 58 formalism, modernism and modernity FURTHER READING Mary Acton‘s Learning to Look at Paintings (London and New York, 1997) is an informative text which provides a useful introduction to formalist terminology and approaches to looking at art. Acton also provides relevant and well-presented case-studies, spanning painting, drawing, sculpture and installations which illustrate how formalist and descriptive terminology can be used in practice. Charles Harrison’s Modernism (Movements in Modern Art Series, London, 1997) is an accessible introduction to the subject of modernism, evaluating its historical and more recent connotations.
Slide 82: 3 A WORLD STILL TO WIN: MARXISM, ART AND ART HISTORY INTRODUCTION The Formalists are followers of St John. They believe that ‘in the beginning was the word’. But we believe that in the beginning was the deed. The word followed as its phonetic shadow. (Trotsky 1925) Picasso chose to stay on in Paris and at the seaside resort of Royan after France fell to the Nazis in 1940. Among the paintings which he had with him was Guernica, 1937, the mural-sized work provoked by the German carpet-bombing of the ancient Basque capital during the Spanish Civil War. In an exchange which allegedly took place when German soldiers entered his studio, one pointed to the canvas, asking ‘Did you do that?’ ‘No,’ Picasso is said to have replied ‘you did.’ On another occasion, Picasso gave postcards of Guernica to German soldiers on leave in Paris (Hilton 1996: 256). Apocryphal or otherwise, these stories emphasise the resonance and power of the visual. The style and content of Picasso’s Guernica,
Slide 83: 60 a world still to win: marxism, art and art history fiercely debated by the socialist and communist left, symbolised many of the broader aesthetic and political questions which urgently faced art and its academic study throughout the 1930s and the decades which followed. This chapter considers how Marxist ideas and assumptions have been used to explore the contexts of artistic production and the meaning of art. To what extent has Marxism influenced debates on the visual arts? Following the collapse of Soviet Russia, the Eastern Bloc, and the apparent demise of communism as a viable social and political project, can the philosophy of Marx and his successors provide relevant insights on art and the realm of the aesthetic? WHO WAS KARL MARX? Karl Marx (1818–83) was a socialist revolutionary, social philosopher, and a political economist. Formally trained in the disciplines of philosophy and law, Marx was an internationalist, steeped in the thought and aspirations of the European Enlightenment. A witness to the vicious and exploitative character of nineteenth-century capitalism, he advocated the complete transformation of all existing social, cultural and political relations. Marx is probably most well known for the Communist Manifesto (1848), published in collaboration with Friedrich Engels (1820–95), and for his critique of capitalism, Das Kapital, the first volume of which was published in 1867. Expelled and exiled from several European countries for his political activities and for the advocacy of workers’ rights, Marx spent his last years in London. Throughout this chapter, Marxism is referenced in the singular. However, the ‘Marxist tradition’ signifies a rich plurality of ideas, aspirations and interventions which have been argued for and applied across the world – not just in relation to theory, but more importantly, to aspects of social and political practice. ART AS IDEOLOGY With more pressing matters at hand, Marx never developed a theory of art, although aesthetic concerns and interests are intrinsic to his work (Eagleton 1977: 1–2). Marx was also disarmingly ambivalent about the possibility that his name and ideas might actually be
Slide 84: a world still to win: marxism, art and art history 61 invoked by subsequent generations of ‘zealous disciples’ in formulating an intellectual and critical tradition (Craven 2002: 267). But despite his apparent reticence, Marxist-inspired ideas have formed one of the most influential yet contested social theories in human history. Marxist theory and its accumulated intellectual tradition has radicalised art history as an academic discipline. Typically, these ideas consider art’s context – its relationship with broader social, political and economic realities. However, Marxist-inspired social art histories are not just concerned with the material production of art as such. Critical attention has equally been given to those institutions and interests involved in the promotion, display and consumption of art, as well as the social and political assumptions which have underpinned claims to aesthetic value and meaning (Boime 1971; Wallach 1998). Marxism understands art, and the wider realm of the aesthetic (in essence how we respond to what we see), as a carrier of tacit and explicit meanings. Art is situated as both a highly specialised practice and also as a form of social consciousness (Baxandall and Morawski 1977: 12). Art is not perceived as value-free, but like all cultural representation, is understood as inherently ideological. Marxists have argued that throughout history, the dominant or hegemonic representations of reality within society have been those typically serving the interests of the ruling elites, rather than those social classes divorced from power and influence. Marxism approaches art not as a disinterested or transcendent activity, but rather as a specialised material practice which mediates in complex and indirect ways the cultural, social and political perspectives of its time. It follows that a socially driven Marxist art history directly counters the formalist claims explored in Chapter 2, whilst at the same time conceding to art and culture relative independence (Hemingway 2006a: 3–4). You may wish to keep some of these distinctions in mind as you read this chapter. Crucially, as various commentators have pointed out, Marxist and post-Marxist ideas are not just concerned with analysing societies, but are engaged with concrete issues of economic and political liberation. Marxism is self-critical and holistic – it is concerned with the totality and ‘connectedness’ of social and economic life. Art, and the wider realm of the aesthetic, are part of this broader knitting together of society and the aspiration towards a radically more authentic human identity.
Slide 85: 62 a world still to win: marxism, art and art history CONTEXT AND INTENTION Before we consider some of the beliefs and assumptions associated with Marxism, it is worth thinking about how the idea of artistic context might be explored in practice. This is not to suggest that an interest in context as such is automatically Marxist – it is not. Likewise, general questions about the ‘background’ of a work of art do not constitute a specifically Marxist or social art history. However, they do provide a start for more detailed analysis and investigation of the multiple and interlinking social influences behind art and its meanings. F Consider the oil painting Oath of the Horatii , 1784 (Figure 12 , p. 63). What kinds of questions do you think might be relevant to exploring this painting’s context? First, we might ask who made the painting and why? Assuming the work to have been a commission, the patron, either an individual or an institution, may have had a particular motivation in mind. Alternatively, perhaps it was created for an academic competition of some kind or speculatively undertaken by the artist. If commissioned or bespoke, what motivations might have been at play? Did the patron or artist leave any records which could support a particular reading, or are there biographical or secondary sources which might suggest other interpretative accounts? From reading this, you will be aware that some of these issues relate to intentionality – that is, the extent to which the thinking or purpose behind the painting was stated or was otherwise evident in its form and content. However, as we see from the chapters on psychoanalysis and semiotics, art frequently sustains unintended meanings or may have unintentional consequences. For example, according to semiotic theory, meaning can also be unstable and deferred. Even when, as is the case here, we have surviving information about the painting’s production, art can accrue readings which revise or displace earlier interpretations or which reflect subsequent cultural conventions (Gombrich 1978; Baxandall 1985). Likewise, responses to images will vary according to differing audiences, social classes and interests. D AV I D A N D T H E F R E N C H S A L O N Oath of the Horatii (henceforth the Horatii) was painted by Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825). David, already a noted and
Slide 86: Figure 12 Oath of the Horatii, Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825), 1784, oil on canvas, 330 × 425cm, Louvre, Paris, © photo RMN/© Gérard Blot/Christian Jean.
Slide 87: 64 a world still to win: marxism, art and art history successful artist, had recently visited Rome where he had undertaken the then customary study of classical Greek and Roman sculpture. He subsequently returned in order to complete the Horatii. Originally begun as a sketch intended for exhibition at the salon (annual competition) of 1783, the completed painting, a royal commission, was finally unveiled in Rome and subsequently at the Paris salon of 1785. The commission, placed by the Ministry of Fine Arts on behalf of Louis XVI, was for history paintings with a moral or educative purpose. Such competitions were also a pragmatic means of supporting and subsidising emerging artistic talent – like that of David. The Marxist art historian Frederick Antal claimed that the gesture was an attempt by an absolutist monarchy to demonstrate an enlightened and contemporary taste by choosing a subject and style which was fashionable with some of its wealthier subjects (1966: 4). It is generally thought that David was influenced in his choice of subject by the play Horace by the French dramatist Pierre Corneille (1606–84), a performance of which had been revived to commemorate the centenary of the playwright’s death. The subject of Corneille’s play was a seventh-century BCE feud between two neighbouring tribes, the Horatii of Rome and the Curiatii of neighbouring Alba. Following various territorial skirmishes, and to avoid wider fatalities, it was agreed that each side would elect champions to defend its cause. In the ensuing combat, only the eldest of the Horatii brothers survives, but the final tragedy arises from the marital ties between the two tribes. Camilla, the sister of the surviving brother, curses him for the loss of her (Alban) husband in the combat. Camilla is then murdered by her surviving brother, angry at her rebuke and apparent betrayal. The scene which David’s painting depicts is that of the three Horatii taking the oath to defend their people and their tribe before combat. They are witnessed by their father and being mourned by their family. REACTIONS AND RESPONSES TO THE HORATII A second question might be to ask: what were the reactions to the painting? What was it about the painting which generated the response that it did?
Slide 88: a world still to win: marxism, art and art history 65 Initially displayed in Rome, David’s painting was a sensation, attracting crowds and even prompting interest from the Vatican (Lee 1999: 87). After being included in the salon of 1785, it was rehung in a better position after the closing date was extended. David’s Horatii was fêted for its directness, economy of expression and sheer drama. Among the suggested reasons for such acclaim was the ‘modern’ treatment of the ‘new aesthetic of the body’ and David’s ability to capture its power of gesture. His approach to composition was dynamic and stylistically innovative, challenging previous formulaic treatments of the antique (Johnson 1993: 14). But with this information we should be wary of attempting overall characterisations since the views of a salon-going public may not have been the same as those of a social elite whose testimony is more likely to have survived. Besides, within France’s autocratic ancien régime, it was unlikely that all views would have been expressed – or permissible. ACADEMIES AND THE ‘HIERARCHY OF GENRES’ We might also consider whether the type or genre of David’s painting was significant in relation to contemporary ideas about the status of different subject matter within art? What might the Horatii suggest about the wider context of ancien régime France? The Horatii is a history painting. To understand its relevance, we need to remember that a ‘hierarchy of genres’ had accompanied both the professionalisation and institutionalisation of art practice following the establishment of the academies. The aim was to shift the making of art and sculpture away from their craft-based origins, to the status of a fine art with training academies dedicated to elevating the social and economic status of artists (Pooke and Whitham 2003: 14–15). By the close of the seventeenth century, the academies had codified and ranked painting according to its subject matter and what was perceived as the level of technical and intellectual ability which its execution required. First came paintings depicting historical, religious and mythological scenes as well as those that illustrated sacred figures such as saints and the Virgin Mary. This was followed by portraiture; then ‘genre’, subjects taken from daily life; landscape; and finally still-lifes, depicting the arrangement of everyday objects, flowers and fruit (Walsh 1999: 93). The status of the various
Slide 89: 66 a world still to win: marxism, art and art history genres followed the formulations of France’s Academy of Painting and Sculpture (est. 1648) although similar distinctions were upheld by academies in England (est. 1768) and Italy (est. 1563). David was therefore working within well-defined conventions relating to choice of genre and the social and intellectual status which was understood to derive from it. The overall prestige and status of the various genres, however, was culturally relative. For example, the still-life in the strongly Protestant, commodity-conscious Dutch Republic of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had symbolic connotations which partly arose from selective inhibitions about the display of personal wealth (Hall 2000: 291). If ostentatious clothing was frequently seen as inappropriate, the depiction of highly expensive, imported flowers, spices and fruit, meticulously captured in oils, could at least be justified as a cautionary homily about the transience of life. Part of the popularity and relative status of the Dutch still-life genre was probably due to the fact that it enabled displays of personal wealth and taste in a socially acceptable way. Whilst David’s Horatii was acclaimed as a history painting in France and Italy partly because of its dramatic subject matter, by contrast, the emphasis in much Dutch art was on description – the convincing depiction of objects (Alpers 1984). With these examples in mind, we might consider the choice and status of genre as one way of understanding the role of art and the social values of a particular cultural elite. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the advent of Impressionism and subsequent avant-garde movements initially questioned, and then superseded, the value-driven distinctions between the various art genres. T H E H O R A T I I A S P O L I T I C A L M E TA P H O R Returning to our question, how might we explain David’s choice of genre, and its relevance for a fuller understanding of this painting and its context? As you will probably have guessed from its title and subject, David’s Horatii is couched in the history of the ancient world, placing it within the top genre. David is recorded as actually having increased the painting’s size to 3m × 4m, the largest dimensions which a state commission could have (Lee 1999: 92). The adaptation has been interpreted as David asserting his independence from
Slide 90: a world still to win: marxism, art and art history 67 Academy regulations and from the contemporary protocols of picture making, although in doing so he was trading off the artistic status of a genre which the Academy had sanctioned. However, this distinction was also underlined in other ways. The Horatii was compositionally innovative in the way the figures are off-centre with the converging swords at mid-axis and with further asymmetry provided by the female figures to the right of the oath-takers. What does this very brief survey of context suggest about the painting’s social meaning? The art historian Walter Friedländer wrote of the Horatii: This is a Spartan and Roman heroism, united with the highest civic virtue. Here is created a highly political symbol – four years before the outbreak of the Revolution. (Friedländer 1975: 17) For Friedländer this painting is primarily a political metaphor for the coming revolution. Certainly, after the events of 1789, David, as ‘Pageant Master of the Republic’, actively supported the revolutionary cause and was prominently involved in the reorganisation of the French Academy. But at the time the Horatii was painted, it has been claimed that David was a ‘political innocent’ (Brookner 1980: 68), republicanism was not a political force and the prospect of revolution and regicide seemed remote (Lee 1999: 94). The painting’s explicit associations as a ‘pre-Revolutionary republican manifesto’ only seem to have started retrospectively in the 1790s with the austere and stoical themes of sacrifice, duty and brotherhood counterposed to the frivolous rococo aesthetics of the ancien régime and work by painters such as Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684–1721) and François Boucher (1703–77) (Brookner 1980: 69). In concluding this section, we should make some general points about context: • Questions of context typically address the conditions and circumstances in which art was materially produced, displayed and discussed. Context underlines art’s embedded status within society – art is not transcendent of social and political cultures or histories. •
Slide 91: 68 a world still to win: marxism, art and art history • • Exploration of context can lead us back to address the specifics of the art work – its meaning and purpose. Questions of context index the histories, values and priorities of the period under consideration, whilst also indirectly inviting reflection upon the preconceptions and assumptions of those who raise such questions. Addressing issues of context provides a useful start in exploring the specificity and nuances of an image. However, Marxist or social histories of art are not simply reducible to ‘euphemisms’ of context, but are concerned to understand the complex determinations and interconnections in which representations are produced and within which they assume cultural meanings (Orton and Pollock 1996: iv). It follows from this that an exploration of context is a necessary preliminary to more detailed investigation of cultural meaning and mutually determining histories and influences. ICONOGRAPHY AND ICONOLOGY Some of the issues explored here have given us clues as to the wider cultural context and meaning of David’s painting. We have considered aspects of its style and the critical responses which were both contemporary with and subsequent to the painting’s completion. Much of the work of the art historian Erwin Panofsky was concerned with understanding the multiple layers of meaning in Italian and Flemish art. In attempting to structure his response to frequently allegorical and highly symbolic art, and having explored in detail some of the questions which we have started to consider here, Panofsky devised a three-layered structure. A pre-iconographic stage, literally meaning ‘before the image’, is undertaken when we describe the configurations of form and colour within a particular representation – its ‘factual’ components (Panofsky 1972 [1939]: 5). So, for example, in looking at David’s Horatii, we literally see four men, three women and two children, shown in front of a three-arched entrance. In the original painting, we would note the use of colour and tone (discussed in Chapter 2) and how these might contribute towards the painting’s mood (the ‘expressional’ aspects of an image).
Slide 92: a world still to win: marxism, art and art history 69 With the next iconographical stage, we would attempt to relate the symbolism of the motifs (the taking of an oath, the crying women) with a narrative – what is actually being depicted in this scene. So we would note that an agreement of some kind is being undertaken and, from the response of the seated figures, it is an action which will have grave consequences. We might also speculate on the familial relationships between the figures depicted. In doing this, we are inevitably making judgements based on our own experience of human behaviour. ICONOLOGY AND ‘INTRINSIC MEANING’ The third and final iconological stage attempts to formulate the image’s actual or intrinsic meaning. As Panofsky puts it, the job of the art historian is to ascertain the ‘underlying principles which reveal the basic attitude of a nation, a period, a class, a religious or philosophical persuasion – unconsciously qualified by one personality and condensed into one work’ (1972 [1939]: 7). Panofsky’s attempt to situate images within larger frameworks of social and historical meaning ran counter to prevailing formalist ideas (see Chapter 2). In devising his schema, Panofsky frequently stressed that in looking at images we need to be alert to the culturally specific use of pictorial traditions and symbols which influence how we understand what we see. It might also be noted here that making art, whether figurative or abstract, is not always the rational and consistent activity that Panofsky implies (Istrabadi 2004: 226). However, whatever the limitations of this particular method, the intention was to broaden awareness of how art mediates social and historical values and ideas. If we return to the Horatii, an iconological reading should remind us of Friedländer’s comment about the painting’s political symbolism. As we move on to consider some of the principles and applications of Marxism to a social art history, Panofsky’s trichotomy illustrates one way of structuring and ordering some of the initial questions about context and meaning that social art histories typically address. Panofsky’s concern to acknowledge the specificity of the image as object and to understand its relationship to a broader context was symptomatic of a major and distinguished tradition within art history associated with scholars such as Aby Warburg
Slide 93: 70 a world still to win: marxism, art and art history and Max Dvor<ák (1874–1921), both of whom accepted the principle of art’s connection with society (Stirton 2006: 48). A R T, A L I E N AT I O N A N D O U R ‘ S P E C I E S B E I N G ’ According to Marx, humankind has a ‘species being’ – specific evolutionary, communal and behavioural characteristics which are uniquely ours (Marx 2001 [1844]: 270–82). Marx believed that human potentiality is created through involvement in the productive process, but under an exploitative capitalism we become estranged and alienated from our ‘species being’. Throughout the Marxist tradition there is an interest in the connection between human sociability and creative labour which is exemplified through the making of art. This reflects a broader conviction that throughout history, humankind has come together to create communities, not just because of external necessity or threat, but also because of a predisposition towards mutuality and the need to express it through forms of social organisation. Marx believed that art represented an authentic expression of the human condition, as it might be, freed from social alienation. This is not an absolute distinction since art, like other forms of social and economic activity, has always served various purposes, including the recording of human conflict. However, it does explain why the aesthetic as an aspirational expression of our ‘species being’ is such a recurrent dimension within Marxist thought. Put simply, art and culture are perceived as intrinsic to human selfcreation. Strictly speaking, the making of art, the writing of books or the scoring of music are supplementary activities. They are not vital for the physical or economic survival of societies. But culture, understood here in the widest, anthropological sense as the values we hold and the things we do – clubbing, watching football or visiting art galleries – provides a sense of who we are, and what we might be. For this reason Marx famously praised Classical Greek culture, suggesting that it reflected the freshness of humankind in its infancy. Marx believed that ancient Greek culture had yet to experience the fragmentation of social relationships and commodified production which arose with capitalism. The art that was created within Greek society reflected a harmony between nature and man
Slide 94: a world still to win: marxism, art and art history 71 which, by its agrarian nature, was ‘limited’ (Eagleton 1977: 12). For Marxism, art and the realm of the aesthetic stands for a more authentic and less alienated life because it registers the realities of those who make it, and their aspiration to a better world. Marxist interpretations of art are materialist. They situate the production of art and culture more generally as particular, if highly mediated, forms of social and economic activity. From this, it has been argued that through history, art has been employed to communicate the power or hegemony of particular individuals, groups, social classes and institutions at particular times. Human history is understood as one of ongoing class conflict between those with access to capital and those subject to it; the mercantile class against the peasants during feudal times and the capitalist and bourgeoisie against the industrial proletariat during and after the Industrial Revolution. the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. (Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, 1848) Marx believed that world revolution would be the eventual consequence of the ever increasing imbalance between those with economic goods and ownership of the factors of production (land, labour, capital), and the dispossessed, compelled to sell labour and skill for their own subsistence and survival (Marx and Engels 1998 [1848]). Artists, as skilled artisans (in feudal times) and members of the intelligentsia in the modern period, were also subject to the alienating conditions of capitalism, since they too, according to Marx, were dispossessed of the true value of their work and of that part of themselves which had gone into its creation. It should be stressed here that when Marx was alive, revolution and insurrection had occurred across the industrialised capitals of Europe. These ideas were not abstract formulations, but attempts to think through a system which Marx and others like him believed to be in terminal and accelerating crisis. ART AS COMMODITY AND A ‘DEPOSIT OF A SOCIAL R E L AT I O N S H I P ’ At the level of exchange, art was, and remains, a commodity, but its commodity status, largely secularised in the West since the
Slide 95: 72 a world still to win: marxism, art and art history Industrial Revolution, is hardly new. For example, much art produced during the Renaissance was in fact bespoke, produced to order, according to particular social conventions and pictorial formats, prompting its description as a ‘deposit of a social relationship’ (Baxandall 1988: 1). The making of pictures as a trade skill also required a level of social interaction and knowledge outside the studio, even before the purchase of the finished goods by the client. This included the sourcing, preparation and mixing of pigments, the correct gauging of costs, weights and measures and – with larger commissions or in busy workshops – the employment and supervision of assistants and apprentices. Michael Baxandall’s (b. 1933) account of the Renaissance art trade is not particularly Marxist in its emphases, but as his subtitle indicates, it does outline ‘a social history of pictorial style’ which situates art as a specific material practice subject to considerable levels of contractual predetermination. This is not to imply that artisans and artists did not have creative and individual agency and that they were not valued for their particular talents. However, it is to suggest that Western concepts of art as a highly individualised, expressive and relatively autonomous activity have more to do with comparatively recent concepts of artistic enterprise (from the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries onwards) than they do with what was, for the generality of artisans and artists, a far more precarious and client-orientated subsistence in the previous centuries (Kempers 1992: 5–6). Historically, much painting and sculpture has been commissioned for various personal and civic reasons which in turn reflected the emerging aspirations of a largely self-appointed religious, political and mercantile elite. By way of rationalising such motivations Baxandall quotes one merchant, who, when asked for the reasons behind his patronage, replied that it was because such things gave him: the greatest contentment and the greatest pleasure because they serve the glory of God, the honour of the city, and the commemoration of myself. (Baxandall 1988: 2) In this case, Baxandall reports a mixture of personal pleasure, religious and civic recognition and personal aggrandisement. For
Slide 96: a world still to win: marxism, art and art history 73 Marxist art historians, the making of art is teleological – a purposive activity serving particular political and economic interests. The disclosure of such interests, the extent to which they are manifest or concealed through the various interactions of art making, has been among the central concerns of Marxist-inspired social art histories. SUPERSTRUCTURE AND INFRASTRUCTURE Marxist approaches to art situate it as a variously mediated activity, ultimately influenced not just by the creative agency of the artist, but by socio-economic conditions and ideological interests. The exact nature of this relationship is disputed, with overly deterministic readings (art as a ‘reflex’ of the economic base) attributed to misinterpretations of the fragmentary formulations of Marx and Engels and the subsequent exigencies of war and revolution. However, the various interpretations of this relationship reflect what Perry Anderson describes as a broader and unresolved ‘disjuncture’ in Marx’s own writing – between the forces of production on one side and the collective agency of people and the dynamic of class struggle on the other (Anderson 1984: 34). Whatever emphasis is made, art and the aesthetic are social forms which do exist in the context of various factors of production – land, labour and capital (the infrastructure) – and those cultural and social forms – systems of governance, civil organisation, values and culture more generally (the superstructure). More recent Marxist and post-Marxist theories have tended to emphasise the inter-dependent and reciprocal relationship between these two areas, but all Marxist art histories recognise this connection which explains the material origins of the aesthetic. On the one hand, the physical components of art arise from pre-existing relations of capital (money, physical resources, skilled labour) – the infrastructure – and, on the other, its use, ownership and social significance places it within the superstructure. In this sense, art and culture are the hybridised outcomes of infrastructure and superstructure. Additionally, both these areas of social life develop at different speeds, with the superstructure (including art) frequently changing
Slide 97: 74 a world still to win: marxism, art and art history Figure 13 Black Square, Kasimir Malevich, c.1929, 106.2 × 106.5cm (Tretyakov Gallery), © Courtauld Institute of Art, London. more rapidly than society’s economic base. For example, the initial version of Malevich’s Black Square, c.1915, was conceived in an autocratic society in which effective serfdom remained widespread. (For one of the later versions completed in 1929 see Figure 13, p. 74.) Within two years of the first version being completed, Russia had witnessed a communist revolution which had collectivised ownership of the means of production, irrevocably changing the country’s future. The sheer and stark modernity of Malevich’s image can be interpreted as a utopian metaphor for the social and economic changes of revolution and the futuristic ambitions of the new state.
Slide 98: a world still to win: marxism, art and art history 75 A R T A N D A G E N C Y – ‘ L I F E C R E AT E S CONSCIOUSNESS, NOT CONSCIOUSNESS LIFE’ Taking Malevich’s example, whilst art might be historically and ideologically locatable because of style, subject matter or format, it is also the outcome of individual imagination and creative agency. Much like everyone else, artists do not live beyond or outside history. As the Marxist idiom goes, ‘life creates consciousness, not consciousness life’ – how we see life depends upon our particular exposures to or experiences of it. Whilst we may have the ability and opportunity to change our circumstances, that ability is delineated and circumscribed in various ways – we have relative autonomy. However, art is also contingent and transformative; images accrue histories, or develop meanings independent of intention. The production of art, in whatever form, is as much the outcome of an artist’s aesthetic, conceptual and imaginative ability as it is anything else. This is not to mystify or to make confusing what artists do, but it is simply to suggest that, like Marx, we respond to art as a particular – and in some cases exceptional – form of creative social labour. D AV I D ’ S H O R A T I I A S A R E V O L U T I O N A R Y MANIFESTO Having noted some of the ideas and assumptions associated with Marxist theory, let us return to David’s Horatii. Antal (1966) understood neo-classical and romantic art as an index to the values of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. This is what he had to say about David’s aesthetic: The whole tendency of David’s painting . . . the exaltation of patriotism and civic virtue in all its austerity . . . was radically directed against his own patrons. Its overwhelming success, indeed its very existence, were determined by the strong feeling of opposition then prevailing against the demoralised Court and its corrupt government. (Antal 1966: 4) For Antal, David’s painting was primarily created as a consciously revolutionary manifesto; its ‘objective rationalism’ a call to arms which anticipates the French revolution. David’s marriage of
Slide 99: 76 a world still to win: marxism, art and art history naturalism and classicism, the austere and linear composition, the patriotic subject matter and the use of Roman sources, was interpreted as a direct reference to French radicalism which looked to classical example to justify its nascent politics and culture. THE HORATII AS A CANONICAL PAINTING OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION David’s Horatii and other paintings which he executed at the time, were later embraced in the 1790s for these and similar reasons. Some readings have suggested that David’s motivation appears to have been far from politically programmatic – at least in France’s pre-revolutionary period. More recent commentators like Lee and Johnson have claimed that David was not consciously articulating a political position in this state commission, but was rather exploring new aesthetic directions and seeking to re-vivify a classical representation of subject matter in a tradition which stretched back to Poussin and Claude (Claude Lorrain, 1600–82). The issue is the extent to which David’s choice of subject and his neo-classical painting style can be read as the ‘visual analogue of republicanism’ (Vaughan and Weston 2000: 21). Or put another way, within an autocratic system in which artistic patronage was centred on the court, in what way might an aspiring artist assert a deliberate political or social message through their work – if that was indeed their intention? In any event, what did it mean to assert political or social meaning through French painting in 1784? What were the codes and symbols that an artist could use and to whom would they be intelligible? Although Antal also recognised David’s stylistic innovations, as a Marxist art historian, his iconological interpretation privileged a declarative, political intention behind the Horatii. In claiming a particular political meaning for this painting, assumptions are being made about the contemporary significance of classical or antique iconography and subject matter. How were David’s style and content perceived in relation to a nascent republicanism, and by whom? That the Horatii came to be celebrated, and indeed recognised, as emblematic of the revolution, and that David became a prominent propagandist for the republican cause, provides some evidential support for Antal’s interpretation (Schnapper 1980).
Slide 100: a world still to win: marxism, art and art history 77 This fairly well-known painting underlines the extent to which interpretations are historically constructed viewpoints which are subject to revision, challenge and re-interpretation. Art can have multiple meanings, both for contemporary constituencies and for successive generations. In the case of the Horatii, different contexts of reception – who saw it, when and where – determined its meaning within particular histories and critical accounts. This is not to deny the importance of the painting’s symbolic resonance, its socio-economic context or the cogent insights made by Antal and others on the ideological uses of art. However, it is to suggest that we should be receptive to the multi-dimensionality of objects and those who make them. Likewise, any and all interpretative accounts mediate the assumptions and preconceptions of those who make them. T E N D E N C Y A N D S O C I A L C O M M I T M E N T – W H AT SHOULD ART AND ARTISTS DO? So far in this chapter we have explored some examples of how Marxist ideas and terminology can be used to inform a social art history. In addition to Antal, Marxist art historians like Hauser, Klingender, Max Raphael (1889–1952) and Schapiro were among the generation which followed Marx, but attempted to apply and develop his insights to the art of the past and also to fashion its relevance to the art and aesthetics of their own time. Whilst Marx’s observations on art and culture had not been methodologically prescriptive, his intellectual legacy was inevitably reframed by the wars, revolutions and urgent social demands of the early twentieth century. The publication of Marx’s early writings, the Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts (1844), in the 1930s made possible a re-evaluation of the early Marx, supporting a renewed emphasis on the centrality of the aesthetic, in all its dimensions, within his thought. Even before the publication of this early work by Marx, there had been attempts to formulate and develop a comprehensive sociology of art from Marx’s fragmentary legacy. Art and Social Life (1912–13) by the prominent communist theorist and aesthetician Georgi Plekhanov (1856–1918) drew on various traditions within nineteenth-century Russian aesthetics which had emphasised art’s
Slide 101: 78 a world still to win: marxism, art and art history social utility rather than an ‘art for art’s sake’ formalism. Plekhanov’s apparent endorsement of naturalistic art over avant-garde experimentation was important, since it anticipated an issue which became central to Soviet aesthetics and Marxist theory in the decades which followed (Laing 1978: 16–17). Before and after the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ending of the First World War, among the crucial cultural issues was the response and ‘tendency’ of the artists to the events around them. Should art make direct comment in support of the progressive social and political causes of the day? And, if so, what form might this take? Throughout the 1920s and 1930s these debates became more pressing as economic depression, large-scale unemployment and social instability increased throughout Europe and America. For example, the art historical response just quoted by Antal in relation to David’s Horatii (1935) belongs to this historical moment. After the October Revolution in Russia and with the rise of fascism in Germany, Italy and Spain, Marxist and communist ideas enjoyed considerable popularity as people attempted to find answers to their social and economic conditions and what appeared to some as the terminal crisis of industrial capitalism. MALEVICH’S BLACK SQUARE AND THE ‘ZERO OF FORMS’ Before we consider some of the debates which developed, consider one of the versions of Malevich’s abstract painting, Black Square F (Figure 13, p. 74). Keeping in mind the general context just noted, you may wish to hazard some guesses as to its possible iconology. Kasimir Malevich came to prominence in the years just before and after the Russian Revolution of 1917. Russia’s artistic and cultural background was very different to that of northern Europe and America. Central to such a context was the icon or devotional image (Cormack 2000: 2). Often painted on simple limewood bases, these stylised depictions of religious figures were placed not only in churches, but in public buildings and on roadsides in small makeshift shelters. In houses, which observed the Russian Orthodox religion, it had also been a frequent custom to hang icons across the corner of the room, in part to symbolise the protective presence of divinity.
Slide 102: a world still to win: marxism, art and art history 79 After the October Revolution of 1917, icons were formally banned as churches were closed by the new authorities. Many avant-garde Soviet artists responded to the radically new social and political order by developing and extending the possibilities of abstraction. The first of four versions of Malevich’s Black Square was exhibited in December 1915 (Néret 2003: 49). Like a religious icon, it was hung in a corner of the Nadezhda Dobychina Bureau, Petrograd. During the exhibition of futurist art Malevich claimed, ‘I have transfigured myself in the zero of forms’ – by which he meant a new type of art for a new society (Néret 2003: 50). He was not alone, and many other avant-garde artists responded to the new social order by making innovative textile designs, abstract sculptures, photomontages, films, stage sets, paintings and even new schools of architecture (Figes 2003: 447–54). Like David’s Horatii, avant-garde Soviet art became a metaphor for the new (Bolshevik) order, which many artists had supported. In a largely non-literate country with no common language, the new communist leaders like Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870–1924) and Leon Trotsky (1879–1940) realised the power of the image as educative propaganda, and attention increasingly focused on the most effective way this could be achieved. Some believed that artists should be given freedom or independence to create the work they wished and, if that was abstract, so be it. In Literature and Revolution (1925), Trotsky outlined this belief, asserting the ‘relative autonomy’ of artistic practice. Others took a more conservative line, advocating, like Alexander Bogdanov (1873–1928), the development of specifically working-class culture. In practice, this generally meant that art and other aesthetic forms – literature, films, theatre, should be realist. That is, they should attempt to depict things figuratively and so be more easily understandable by the industrialised and agriculturally based masses. ART AND THE ‘SOCIAL COMMAND’: SOVIET SOCIALIST REALISM Throughout the 1920s, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union refrained from giving explicit support for any of the various artistic factions which had developed and which variously competed for hegemony and patronage in the new order (Laing 1978: 34). However,
Slide 103: 80 a world still to win: marxism, art and art history communist interests began to steer the direction of art and other cultural forms as the economic and political re-shaping of the Soviet Union intensified through the various centralising five-year plans (Taylor 1992). In 1934, at the Congress of Soviet Writers, Soviet artists were mandated to depict ‘socialist re-construction’ through a blend of romanticised naturalistic painting using nineteenth-century academic technique – Soviet Socialist Realism. In the Stalinist period ‘progressive’ came to mean that which was stylistically conservative and thematically traditional. As Sim notes, art became something which was ‘heavily committed to figurative representation and idealized forms. Art became relentlessly propagandistic’ (1992: 448). The Communist Party’s control of all patronage and access to materials ensured that Soviet Socialist Realism became the official house style of the Soviet Union and its territories. Abstract art by Malevich and those like him was discouraged; much avant-garde art was lost, smuggled abroad or simply hidden. F Consider for example Gabo’s Square Relief (Figure 10, p. 45), the formal aspects of which were discussed in Chapter 2. Originally made in 1920–21, during the period of civil war and widespread privation which directly affected Gabo and his siblings, Square Relief was completed at a time when Soviet cultural policy had yet to be crystallised. Initially galvanised by the revolutionary fervour and involved in avant-garde debate and organisation, Gabo finally fled the Soviet Union for Germany in 1923 (Nash 1985: 17). Square Relief became emblematic of the kind of abstract art which was eventually proscribed by the Soviet authorities. Ironically, and with all the benefits of hindsight, such art – abstract, innovative, futuristic and utopian – was a very powerful metaphor for the modernising aspirations of the Bolsheviks. Debate continues as to whether what actually happened in Russia (both politically and artistically) did in fact have anything to do with the theory of Marxism. However, there is little doubt that the Soviet example and what followed during the Cold War had major repercussions not just for the status and reputation of Marxist theory throughout the world, but by implication for the status and currency of Marxist approaches to art and aesthetics.
Slide 104: a world still to win: marxism, art and art history 81 C R I T I C A L T H E O R Y A N D T H E ‘ F R A N K F U R T S C H O O L’ As mentioned earlier, part of the allure of Marxist theory was its promise of political and economic transformation. However, throughout the 1920s and 1930s, Western capitalism proved far more durable than its critics had expected. Although these decades witnessed international conflict and social instability, the global communist revolution remained elusive. From the 1950s and 1960s, in America and northern Europe particularly, consumer-led capitalism appeared to have successfully accommodated aspirations for a materially better lifestyle. These achievements were compared to the systemic failures of the Soviet Union’s command economy and the freedoms enjoyed by artists in the West, which were contrasted to the diktats and privations faced by those within the Eastern Bloc. A new generation of Marxist-orientated intellectuals began to re-formulate their responses to this new global order. The Frankfurt School of critical theorists emphasised the philosophical dimension to Marxist thought, incorporating insights on human rationality gained from social psychology and the legacy of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). Theodor Adorno (1903–69), Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979) and Max Horkheimer (1895–1973) were its most prominent members, although the work and legacy of Walter Benjamin (1892–1940) anticipated key aspects of their research, including the nature of cultural reproduction and the problematic relationship between art and modernity (see Chapter 7). In his essay ‘Author as Producer’ (1982 [1934]), Benjamin had attempted to reconcile the aesthetic quality of a work with its social or political meaning, calling for a critical avant-garde art which used new technological means such as film, photography and photomontage. Benjamin’s engagement with modernity, the contradictions of high culture and the ideological conflicts of his time, was cogently conveyed by Peter Kennard (b. 1949) in 1990. Kennard’s photomontage F (Figure 14, p. 82), originally printed in the Guardian newspaper, commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of Benjamin’s suicide on the French/Spanish border, following the fall of Paris and the onset of German occupation. The repetition of Leonardo da Vinci’s (1452–1519) Mona Lisa, c.1503–7, references Benjamin’s belief in the potentially liberating effects of cultural reproduction on human consciousness.
Slide 105: Figure 14 Walter Benjamin, Peter Kennard, 1990, photomontage, © the artist.
Slide 106: a world still to win: marxism, art and art history 83 Benjamin’s contemporary, Adorno, remained opposed to overtly politicised forms of art, asserting that only the autonomy of a truly ‘oppositional art’ could offer fragile and utopian resistance to instrumental thought and coercive ideologies (Adorno 2001 [1962]). Adorno believed that art and culture had become commodities within an entirely ‘administered’ political system dominated by technology and corporate interests. In such a situation, human freedom and the aspirations of art were at best compromised and at worst illusory. These ideas were explored in influential texts such as the Dialectic of Enlightenment, co-authored with Horkheimer in 1947 (Adorno and Horkheimer 1986), Negative Dialectics (1973) and Aesthetic Theory (1970). The emancipatory potential of the European Enlightenment was seen as having been reversed through human domination of nature and an emerging rationality which has instrumentalised and alienated human relationships at every level of a technologically administered society (Adorno and Horkheimer 1986: 54). Despite the social coerciveness of contemporary capitalism, members of the Frankfurt School believed that art retained a utopian potentiality as resonant as it was mute and powerless. Commentators have seen similarities here in the approach to abstract painting taken by the contemporary German artist Gerhard Richter (b. 1932), whose reflexive work has oscillated between figuration and abstraction but with a self-consciousness about the historical and cultural meanings attributed to both (Wood 1993: 251). Richter is on record as describing painting as a ‘moral act’ through which he has broached the subjects of terrorism, the uses of photography, the conditions of cultural reproduction and its legacy for contemporary practice. His startling juxtapositions of the painterly and the photographic might be seen as explorations which consider the aesthetic limitations, potentialities and renewal of both (see for example http://www.gerhard-richter.com/home/index.php). Unlike earlier generations, Adorno and his contemporaries were faced with having to re-formulate a Marxist tradition ‘dispossessed’ – without the conviction that revolution and class agency would provide the long-awaited human emancipation. Rose writes: The [Frankfurt] School sought to define Marxism sui generis on the assumption that there is no longer any privileged carrier of that cognition, any universal class. (Rose 1978: 3)
Slide 107: 84 a world still to win: marxism, art and art history The tenor which underpins much of the analysis of Adorno and Marcuse can be seen as a legacy of the social crisis which characterised the institution’s early years in Germany. With its members menaced and then exiled by the threat of fascism, the Frankfurt School was compelled to witness the increasingly authoritarian diktats of Stalinist Russia, and the post-war consolidation of Western capitalism. Although influential on some of the debates of the New Left, the Frankfurt School was part of the intellectual tradition of Western Marxism which had been shaped by its defeat as a mass political movement outside the Soviet Union in the years after 1917 (Anderson 1984: 15–16). For various commentators, this historical legacy has been most apparent in the work of Adorno and his pessimistic reading of the prospects for art and culture under an administered ‘culture industry’ – essentially the conditions of postmodernity (Adorno 2001). Some of the theoretical concerns of the Frankfurt School theorists have been continued in the work of Jürgen Habermas (b. 1928). In ‘Modernity – An Incomplete Project’ (Habermas 2003 [1980]), he interprets the phenomenon of postmodernity as a means by which the reactionary ideas opposed to modernism have been ‘legitimated’. Rather than conceding a positive assessment of postmodernity, Habermas has called for an ‘aesthetic of resistance’ to counter the totalising and coercive claims of an administered society (Habermas 2003 [1980]: 1124–30). This idea has some resonance in the claims of a critical postmodern visual culture discussed in Chapter 7. Its stress on the importance of human agency and the specificity of artistic practice within modernity also underpins the orientation of more recent Marxist art theory. T. J . C L A R K A N D A B R I T I S H M A R X I S T T R A D I T I O N The early 1970s have been characterised as marking a decisive point of renewal within a Marxist art historical tradition (Orton and Pollock 1996: viii–xviii). Although marginalised by the Cold War, the work of earlier émigré Marxists such as Antal, Hauser, Klingender and Raphael provided a point of reference (and departure) for a new generation of art historians. A resurgent New Left and the social and political protests of the late 1960s and early 1970s were the context and impetus for views which dissented from a prevalent formalist tradition.
Slide 108: a world still to win: marxism, art and art history 85 John Berger’s (b. 1928) collaboratively authored primer, Ways of Seeing (1972), was written as a materialist rejoinder to Kenneth Clark’s (1903–83) Civilisation television series and book of 1969, which had asserted an ‘aristocratic Tory view of “civilisation”’ (Orton and Pollock 1996: ix). In a series of short, discursive word-and image-based essays, Berger explores the social construction of culture and aesthetic value, taking insights from Benjamin, Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937) and other critical theorists. Timothy J. Clark (b. 1943) has been claimed as the ‘most significant Marxist art historian of the post-1945 period’ (Harris 2003: 68). Clark is particularly known for what has since become a canonical series of books within a Marxist social art history: Image of the People: Gustave Courbet and the 1848 Revolution (1973a), The Absolute Bourgeois: Artists and Politics in France 1848–1851 (1973b) and The Painting of Modern Life: Paris in the Art of Manet and His Followers (1984). Clark’s detailed exploration of specific images situated them in relation to a ‘particular conjuncture of conditions and relations of production’ which typically included political, social and economic, as well as material and aesthetic, considerations (Harris 2003: 68). Although Clark acknowledged an antecedent Marxist tradition (Clark 1974: 561–62), he was concerned to develop a social art history which explored individual agency and which accorded art objects ‘a more active and even occasionally dramatic role in the historical process’ (Hemingway 2006b: 191). At the start of his book on Courbet, Clark writes: What I want to explain are the connecting links between artistic form, the available systems of visual representation, the current theories of art, other ideologies, social classes, and more general historical structures and processes. (1973a: 12) For Clark, works of art are not abstracted from history and placed against something called ‘context’ but are constitutive of and implicated within social processes and formations. Contemporary with Clark, other interventions by Laura Mulvey (b. 1941), Linda Nochlin (b. 1931) and Griselda Pollock (b. 1949) (see Chapter 6) interrogated the patriarchal assumptions of older Marxist theory, whilst adapting
Slide 109: 86 a world still to win: marxism, art and art history Marxist insights to issues of cultural representation and the specificity of gendered experience. POST-MARXISM? Post-Marxism can be understood as a melding of Marxist ideas with more recent theories such as postmodernism, deconstruction and discourse theory. It has been argued that the collapse of communism and the rise of neo-liberal philosophies have rendered the cultural and political project of a critical Marxism obsolete. As one of Jean-François Lyotard’s (1924–98) metanarratives, communism has been superseded by postmodernity and a liberal pluralism – the argument advanced by Francis Fukuyama (b. 1952) (see Chapter 7). But as Hemingway notes, such valedictions are not new, and ignore the resurgent oppositional consciousness of anti-globalisation and anti-war campaigns (2006a: 2). For many on the political and cultural left, the receding prospect of the much promised post-Cold War ‘peace dividend’ has made explicit the social and moral deficits of contemporary capitalism, as have the recent domestic and foreign policy disasters of AngloAmerican neo-conservatism. From the vantage point of 2007, Fukuyama’s thesis of the ‘end of history’ looks pretty remote. For its defenders, a critical Marxist project remains alive and well. Politically, within the developing and Third World context, the social and economic consequences of globalisation and free markets are yet to be reconciled. From this perspective, it is by no means clear if the managed political options of the West will ultimately define the choices made by the rest of the globe. Within art history, literary criticism and cultural studies more generally, Marxist and post-Marxist ideas are so pervasive that they have entered the mainstream and are frequently not even identified as such. The deconstruction of texts and meaning sponsored by Jacques Derrida (1930–2004) can be seen as a reaction to forms of Marxism which were extant in the 1970s, since it is concerned with claims to knowledge (epistemology) and claims about the nature of reality (ontology) – issues central to Marxism as a social and political philosophy (Joseph 2006: 128). Derrida’s project is political insofar as it encourages exploration of ‘radical otherness or différance‘ rather than an imposed and dominant meaning (Joseph 2006: 129).
Slide 110: a world still to win: marxism, art and art history 87 In this sense, Derrida has upheld the critical and subversive ethos of Marxism even if he does not subscribe to the entirety of Marxist ideology (Derrida 1994). The durability of a critical Marxism can in part be attributed to the reflexive plurality of its ideas and perspectives, although with the common aspiration of linking belief with practice. More recent emphasis arising from a critical realist tradition has extended and renewed engagement with Marx’s original commitment to human agency or praxis and its role in the formation of social forms and institutions. Among the most characteristic aspects of much art historical research over the past thirty years has been this close and consistent attention to the specificities of the art object, practice or movement, combined with a reflexive awareness of art’s sociologically complex role within material culture. Within art history, Marxism’s most abiding legacy has been to embed art in the realm of social relations and human agency, rather than in the esoteric concerns of a formalist tradition abstracted from history. In an age of increasing specialisation and atomisation, a critical contemporary Marxism speaks to the aspiration of our common ‘connectedness’ and of the vital role of art and the aesthetic in salvaging what it means to be more truly human. SUMMARY This chapter has introduced and explored Marxist ideas and terminology. It has considered how both might be used in relation to specific examples of art, as well as in contributing to broader discussions about Marxism’s relevance or otherwise for contemporary visual culture. On one hand, the fragmentary nature of Karl Marx’s views on art has been historically problematic yet enabling and galvanising a richly discursive Marxist aesthetics. At their best, Marxist ideas have attempted to reconcile concerns over aesthetic quality and innovation with a belief in the social relevance and agency of art and artists. At their worst (and some would deny that there is any justification in linking the two), overly prescriptive ideas claiming Marxist inspiration have created debased and unimaginative art, originally characterised by an initially left-leaning Greenberg as kitsch (see Chapter 2). Such a mixed legacy recognises the extent to which Marxist aesthetics were part of a broader intellectual
Slide 111: 88 a world still to win: marxism, art and art history trajectory which was, from its inception, embattled and compromised by brute reaction and pragmatic, political necessity. Perhaps the most eloquent and powerful case made for the resonance of Marxist aesthetics has been by approaches which have been either resistant to, or sceptical of, some of the traditional closures and determinations of more ‘orthodox’ and pragmatic forms of Marxist theory. The various interventions associated with the critical theory of Adorno and the historically specific analysis of ‘conjunctures’ demonstrated by T. J. Clark’s social art history are two such examples. In both cases, highly nuanced treatments attempt to register the specificity of the object under discussion in relation to wider social and political formations. With Adorno, it can be art’s opaqueness and refusal to signify – its ‘mute resistance’ in the face of the culture industry – which eloquently registers its redemptive power. But the most formative legacy of a holistic Marxist tradition has been an oppositional consciousness and a belief in the agency of men and women to change their lives. In this sense perhaps, we have yet to see a truly authentic Marxist art and aesthetic. FURTHER READING The bibliography on Marxism and post-Marxism is extensive, and any choice inevitably reflects personal perceptions of what the Marxist tradition is understood to be. However, Marxism and Social Theory, by Jonathan Joseph (Joseph 2006), and Post-Marxism: A Reader, edited by Stuart Sim (Sim 1998), are both very useful and readable introductions to issues and debates in and around the Marxist tradition as a social and political philosophy. In view of the pervasiveness of Marxist ideas within culture and art history, the reader is as likely to encounter examples of such approaches within general anthologies of articles and essays as they are in course texts or monographs on particular artists. The most recent publication about Marxist historiography specifically in relation to the visual arts is Marxism and the History of Art: From William Morris to the New Left, edited by Andrew Hemingway (London, 2006). In addition to exploring various neglected figures within a ‘classical’ Marxist art history, Hemingway’s anthology explores the impact of the New Left and the re-definition and re-focusing of concerns and thematics which arose from the 1970s onwards.
Slide 112: a world still to win: marxism, art and art history 89 Also of interest is The New Art History: A Critical Introduction by Jonathan Harris (London and New York, 2001). This book offers a comprehensive and readable introduction to the fundamental theoretical shifts and related texts which have characterised recent art history. Although not principally ‘about’ Marxism, this text offers a very useful contextualisation of Marxist ideas and their contribution to the art history which has arisen over the last thirty years. OTHER RESOURCES There is the Marxist internet archive at: http://www.marxists.org which holds an extensive range of material. The Marx Memorial Library at 37a Clerkenwell Green, London, is a Labour movement lending library and research centre with over 100,000 books, pamphlets and periodicals available to members, including wide-ranging material relevant to art and aesthetics. For further details, email: marx.library@britishlibrary.net or web address: http://www.marxlibrary.net. The Society for Co-operation in Russian and Soviet Studies (SCRSS), 320 Brixton Road, London, is an educational charity which promotes knowledge of the culture, language and history of Russia and the former Soviet Union. It has a considerable archive and loan library open to members. For more details, email: ruslibrary@ scrss.org.uk or web address: http://www.scrss.org.uk.
Slide 113: 4 SEMIOTICS AND POSTSTRUCTURALISM INTRODUCTION Semiotics is concerned with everything that can be taken as a sign. (Eco 1976: 7) Umberto Eco’s observation provides a start point for exploring the relevance of semiotics to art history and visual interpretation. Consider Bronzino’s An Allegory with Venus and Cupid, c.1540–50 (Figure 15, p. 91) (henceforth Allegory), and the motifs which contribute to its meaning. There are prominent elements in the painting which allude to time (Old Father Time), jealousy or despair (the howling face on the left) and pleasure or deceit (the hybrid creature with a human face on the right). However, a deeper understanding of the way signs work should provide further insight into ways of interpreting this image. How and why do these elements work? How can we situate signs in their original and contemporary cultural contexts? What does their use tell us about the broader meanings of the image? Semiotics is the study of signs and signification. It developed from studies of language and logic undertaken independently by Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) in Switzerland and Charles
Slide 114: Figure 15 An Allegory with Venus and Cupid, Bronzino, c.1540–50, oil on wood, 146.5 × 116.8cm, © National Gallery, London.
Slide 115: 92 semiotics and poststructuralism Sanders Peirce (1839–1914) in America in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The theories proposed by these scholars have been elaborated and extended through the twentieth century, mostly as two separate stands of research. These later studies have influenced the definition and interpretation of art within contemporary art history. They have also informed the interpretations underlying much contemporary gender and postmodern theory (discussed in more detail in Chapters 6 and 7). This chapter explores the principles of semiotic theory and considers its relevance to contemporary theories of art. It concludes with a consideration of the limitations and repercussions of poststructuralist theories. SOME BASICS ABOUT LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS Saussure and Peirce (pronounced ‘purse’) developed different theories for explaining the workings of linguistic signs. Saussure explored signs in relation to language. Fundamentally, language is a means of communication between human beings (and possibly animals (Sebeok 1972)) and the study of languages is called linguistics. The components of language are verbal – relating to speech, sounds or phonetics – and written – relating to the written representation of sounds and words. The academic discipline of linguistics studies the structures and relationships of these different components in order to understand the construction and origins of languages. For example, linguists might look at the structures within a written language, the structural connections between two different languages or relationships between verbal and written forms of a language. A subset of the discipline is phonetics, which studies the sound systems of languages and how individual verbal sounds (phonemes) form words. FERDINAND DE SAUSSURE Saussure explored language from a perspective diferent to these approaches. He sought to explain how words in a language – linguistic signs – mean what they mean. He wanted to understand
Slide 116: semiotics and poststructuralism 93 the construction of signs and their meaning rather than the structures of specific languages. Saussure indentified two components in the linguistic sign: • • the physical element, the actual spoken or written word – the signifier; the mental concept, the idea of the sign – the signified. These two components are interdependent but separate. For example, if I say the word ‘shoe’ there is the phonetic sound and the idea in my mind of what a shoe is. It is not a specific shoe (such as the left green suede shoe), but a general concept of a shoe. I cannot say the word shoe, and you cannot hear it, without invoking the idea of a shoe. In separating the two components, Saussure acknowledged their arbitrary relationship. Not only could other signifiers conjure the same mental concept (for example, different languages have different words for shoe), but also the word shoe is just the word which has been assigned by time, convention and practice. That is not to say that signifiers can be changed randomly but that there is no intrinsic reason for a particular signifier/signified relationship. The arbitrary nature of the signifier/signified relationship means that language is in some ways constructed independent of the reality which it describes. Saussure also claimed that the meaning of the word shoe is relational and depends on its difference from other words. Put another way, because the word shoe only arbitrarily means the concept of a shoe it requires the context of and difference from other words and concepts to give it meaning. Therefore shoe is different phonetically from ‘two’ or ‘hoe’, and conceptually from boot or sock. Saussure therefore theorised that the signifier/signified relationship could not be understood independently from the language system to which it belonged (Saussure 1983: 112–20). Saussure called the study of signs semiology, as opposed to semiotics. He called the system of signifier/signified, or linguistic signs, ‘langue’ and the practical application of the system within a specific language, or act of speech, ‘parole’ (Chandler 2002: 231). Although Saussure’s original studies and theories relate to language, the principles he developed became fundamental to
Slide 117: 94 semiotics and poststructuralism exploring sign systems across other media and communications, including images and art (for example Bal and Bryson 1991 and Frascina 1993b). His theories provided the foundations for the European school of studying signs exampled in work by Michel Foucault (1926–84), Derrida, Roland Barthes (1915–80) and Julia Kristeva (b. 1941) (Cobley and Jansz 1997: 37); but more of them later. CHARLES SANDERS PEIRCE Peirce approached the concepts and structures of signs from a different direction. As a philosopher and logician he explored the sign within the broader context of ontology – the study of pure being and the essence of things; and phenomenology – the study of experiencing phenomena in the world. Rather than the two-part theory of signs proposed by Saussure, Peirce proposed three elements to the sign: • • • the sign itself, for example a word – the representamen; the object to which the representamen refers – the object; the sense of the thing which links the other two – the interpretant. The interaction of the three components of the sign is called semiosis and is of a triangular form. Compared to the Saussurean model there is the addition of the object into the sign structure but there is also a dynamic element to the system. The interpretant can be a representamen to another sign leading to a potentially infinite cycle of representamen-object-interpretant/representamen-object-interpretant/representamen, etc. In this way the Peircean model can be seen as a process compared to the structure of the Saussurean model (Peirce 1931–58). Peirce’s triangular model provided the basis for later theorists to develop variant or simplified semiotic systems based around the triad (a thing of three parts): • • • A – sign vehicle/signifier/representamen B – sense/signified/interpretant C – referent/object, sometimes also linked to signifier.
Slide 118: semiotics and poststructuralism 95 However the nature of each component of the triadic model is often debated and, as can be seen, the equivalence between the models is not precise (Chandler 2002: 34–36). DEVELOPMENTS OF SEMIOSIS The process of semiosis provided Peirce with a model which could be elaborated. First, he identified different states or stages of the object and interpretant, which further clarified their meaning and involvement in the sign system. Second, he developed a typology of signs based on the different modes of relationship between the components of the triad. The three modes – symbolic, iconic and indexical – can be understood on a scale of arbitrariness or conventionality (Chandler 2002: 36–43). At one extreme is the symbolic mode. These are arbitrary signs, i.e. there is no intrinsic relationship between the elements of the sign. The relationship between the representamen/signifier and interpretant/signified would be entirely based on convention. An example of this mode could be the image of the dove in the bottom F left corner of Allegory (Figure 15, p. 91) which conventionally represents good tidings or peace. At the other end of the scale is the indexical mode. These are signs in which there is a direct connection or genuine relationship between the representamen/signifier and interpretant/signified. An example of this mode is the portrait of Mrs Fiske Warren (Gretchen Osgood) and Her Daughter Rachel, 1903, by John Singer Sargent F (Figure 21, p. 145), where the image has a direct relationship to the sitters. In between these two extremes is the iconic mode. These are signs which owe their connection to the object through some resemblance between representamen/signifier and interpretant/ signified. An example of this mode is the raised swords in Horatii F by David (Figure 12, p. 63), which signal the coming fight between the two families (see Chapters 2 and 3). It is important to note that a sign may have more than one mode. For example, the swords in the Horatii have other potential symbolic meanings (justice, constancy or fortitude) as well as the specific iconic meaning within the painting (Hall 2000: 294–95).
Slide 119: 96 semiotics and poststructuralism S O W H AT A B O U T A R T A N D S E M I O T I C S ? This introduction to the theories of Saussure and Peirce provides a brief overview of the origins of semiotic studies and gives an idea of the complexities of the concepts involved. Although some art historians have engaged directly with these theories, their importance has primarily been to lay the foundations for subsequent theories of structuralism and poststructuralism (Leja 2002: 303–16; Hatt and Klonk 2006: 201–12). At a basic level, theories of sign systems relate to the use of symbols, signs and meanings in art. For example, in Chapter 6 the concept of difference is used to develop the characterisation of gender within visual representation. However, the study of signs and the separating out of the components of sign systems have resulted in a more fundamental reconsideration of the construction of knowledge and value systems. This has led to radically new interpretations of social, political and cultural phenomena, including art. Therefore the principles of semiotics underlie contemporary theories of gender, power, ethnicity, the postmodern and postcolonialism. S I G N S A N D T H E R E P R E S E N TAT I O N O F R E A L I T Y In Chapter 1, we introduced the concept that art is sometimes about representation of a perceived reality and that the principle of art as mimesis has been challenged throughout the twentieth century. The way semiotic theories separate the signifier, signified and referent (object) introduces the possibility that signs are in some way independent of the reality they represent. Perhaps the outcome of this is self-evident – a brief consideration of words and their meanings (for example boot, box or tight) reveals how they can be used to mean different things in obvious or not so obvious ways. This concept, however, leads to more radical questioning of how accurately sign systems (e.g. language) represent reality. A ‘realist’ view might be that signs do have a one-to-one relationship to objects or concepts. The complexities of language, however, suggest that this cannot be the case. As noted in Chapter 1, works such as a painting or even a photograph represent only one viewpoint or perspective of the reality their originators sought to present.
Slide 120: semiotics and poststructuralism 97 The ‘idealist’ alternative to the ‘realist’ view is that things do not exist at all independently of the sign systems which describe them. In other words, because we cannot conceive of reality without the use of a sign system, the reality does not exist for us as a separate entity from the sign system. Some argue that the way words and languages describe and differentiate the world does correlate with the objects and divisions of the real world, although different languages do not do it in the same way. It must be acknowledged that words do not ‘name’ things in the real world; rather they create a separate world which is abstracted from the real one (Chandler 2002: 55–58). MODALITIES OF THE SIGN The semiotic models of both Saussure and Peirce, in different ways, separate the sign from reality and propose that the real world can only be known through signs. This stance led Peirce to propose degrees of accuracy, the ‘modality’ of signs – in other words, how close is a sign to reality? Again there are different views on this point. ‘Idealists’ argue that reality is totally constructed by signs, whilst ‘realists’ state that signs only offer a viewpoint on a tangible reality which exists independently from the signs that describe it. An intermediate viewpoint is that signs construct a ‘social reality’ but acknowledge the existence and importance of the physical world (Chandler 2002: 58–59). The ‘modality’ of a sign offers the possibility of exploring how close a sign or text is to reality. Although degrees of ‘modality’ can be theorised – that one text or medium is more reliable or authentic than another – no firm rules can be drawn. For example, we might think that Mrs Fiske Warren (Gretchen Osgood) and Her Daughter Rachel by Sargent (Figure 21, p. 145) is close to reality F but could we suggest this of all portraits? Similarly, Adam and Eve by Cranach (Figure 20, p. 142) might be seen by some as F entirely allegorical and by others as representing a critical moment in Biblical history. Also, the circumstances of an encounter with the text or sign might mean that its proximity to reality is emphasised. Have you ever read a book or looked at a painting and been so absorbed by it that you are surprised when you returned to
Slide 121: 98 semiotics and poststructuralism reality? Surprised, for example that the sun was shining when the ‘reality’ of the text or image assured you that it was raining? Eco has argued that familiarity with an iconic sign in a particular context can mean that it becomes more ‘real’ than reality (Eco 1976: 204–5). Typically, photographic representations, particularly film and television, are judged most ‘realistic’. In Chapter 1, we noted that photographic and artistic representations, however closely they represent reality, offer only a mediated perspective of it. In Chapter 6 we discuss how film forms in the mid-twentieth century reinforced the ‘reality’ of the masculine and feminine roles in society. Within any media – painting, text or film – genres can be constructed with sets of ‘modality markers’ (indices to reality) which create value systems or ‘realities’ for the viewer or reader (Chandler 2002: 60–64). It is easy to see how the prominence of particular art genres and styles at certain times might be explained within this theory of ‘modality markers’. An example of a reality created by art is the case of single point perspective. Developed in the early fifteenth century by Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446), it was adopted as the standard way of representing space for over 500 years. Based on the idea that the image was being viewed through a ‘window’, it created a perspective from a single viewpoint (Turner 1997: 91–115). Artists became exceptionally skilled at manipulating the image to construct this viewpoint, and it was not significantly challenged until Cubism questioned its assumptions. In the real world, we have panoramic sight; even if we hold our head and eyes still we do not have a single viewpoint, and our two eyes ensure we see objects in three dimensions. So why did this method of representation become the dominant form for hundreds of years? Some see its origins as a desire to introduce the human perspective into art in response to humanist concerns, but this has been challenged (Burke 1986: 20). It was certainly a response to the renewed interest in classical art and architectural values. It was not until the 1920s when the art historian Erwin Panofsky wrote ‘Perspective as Symbolic Form’ (1927) that the idea emerged that it had a signification of its own. Panofsky’s work opened the debate on what we can now see is a signifying system which for a time eclipsed all other forms of
Slide 122: semiotics and poststructuralism 99 representation, and which is still today viewed by some as the right way to paint a three-dimensional image. CHALLENGING ‘REALITY’ The Surrealist painter René Magritte (1898–1967) explored the contradictions of representation in his painting La Trahison des Images (The Treachery of Images), 1929 (Los Angeles County Museum of Art). The work contains a relatively realistic representation of a smoker’s pipe with the following words written underneath – ‘Ceci n’est pas une pipe’ (This is not a pipe). The solution to this visual puzzle can be sought in the word ‘This’. Does ‘This’ mean a pipe, the painting or the sentence? There is no correct answer (Schneider Adams 1996: 137–38, 157, 166). Magritte’s intention was to highlight the impossibility of reconciling words, images and objects and to engage with representations of reality, particularly in advertising. A semiotic interpretation reinforces the idea that the representation – the sign – is not the same as the real thing – the object (Foucault 1983; Boyne 2002: 341–42; Chandler 2002: 64–65). Magritte’s questioning of representations of reality was taken up by a generation of Pop artists including Robert Rauschenberg (b. 1925), James Rosenquist (b. 1933), Roy Lichtenstein (1923–97), Richard Hamilton (b. 1922) and Andy Warhol (1928–87), who explored and challenged images of 1960s reality. In the context of semiotics, these artists ask us to re-consider our assumptions about the reliability of the relationship between images (signs) and the world they represent (objects) (Hughes 1991: 341–56). In certain circumstances the viewer or reader is encouraged to overlook the medium of the signifier – painting, text or film. In other words, the viewer or reader is deceived into thinking the signifier is the reality. The medium effectively becomes ‘transparent’, reinforcing the confusion between signifier, signified and object. The challenge for painters from the Renaissance onwards was to see how closely they could imitate reality on a twodimensional surface. But however successful they might appear to the eye signs are still only signs. Twentieth-century avant-garde artists rejected the ‘deceit’, or conceit, that you could represent a three-dimensional reality in two dimensions, instead focusing
Slide 123: 100 semiotics and poststructuralism their artistic interests on the nature of the two-dimensional surface (see Chapter 2). W H O S E ‘ R E A L I T Y ’ I S I T A N Y W AY ? The separation of signifier, signified and object has raised questions over the stability of the relationship between them. Postmodern and poststructuralist theorists argue that there is no firm link between signifier and signified. The signifier can mean whatever the ‘user’ wants it to mean. In this context the ‘user’ might be the author or the listener/viewer of the signifier. This means that the signifier might mean anything – an ‘empty signifier’. This fluidity between signifier and signified has been developed by postmodern theorists to propose a number of theories concerning the interpretation of visual signs and images. Roland Barthes, the first theorist to make explicit use of the term ‘empty signifier’, hypothesised that signifiers were open to interpretation by anyone. He proposed that any listener or viewer could make their own interpretation of the sign or image, regardless of authorial intention. Based on this theory, he proposed the ‘death of the author’, where the author (or the artist) has no control over how his text (or painting) is interpreted after it is completed (see Chapter 7). In other words, the original signifier/signified relationship of a sign can be replaced by any number of alternative signifier/signified relationships. Jacques Derrida went further in deconstructing semiotic structures, proposing that the relationship between the signifier and the signified was irresolvable. His term différance encompassed both the idea of difference, defined by Saussure, and the deferral of the resolution of the signifier/signified relationship. He argued that the meaning of a particular sign is constantly deferred because its ultimate meaning is dependent on the meanings of other signs in a text. The process of exploring this phenomenon in texts is called deconstruction. This continuous cycle of deferred meaning has parallels to Peirce’s theory of an infinite cycle of representamen-object-interpretant/ representamen-object-interpretant/representamen (Chandler 2002: 74–75). Underlying Derrida’s theories is a criticism of Saussure’s belief that speech was more important than writing. Derrida claimed that Saussure’s sign system implied that the spoken word/signifier
Slide 124: semiotics and poststructuralism 101 is closer to the signified (the thought) than the written word/signifier. This purity of speech over writing has been a central theme within philosophical thought since Plato, but Derrida believed that speech and writing were equally limited in their ability to objectively represent reality (Derrida 1976). Derrida saw this as an indication that Saussure’s system was logocentric – i.e. self-referential. Derrida argued that the setting down of any knowledge system, from politics and philosophy to social and cultural values including Saussure’s semiology, was selfreferential. In other words, the process of formulating any theory requires the construction of a self-referencing sign system related through différance, which in turn cannot produce objective ‘truths’. Any theory is built up from interdependent signs which rely on themselves to create a ‘truth’. Another theorist, Jean Baudrillard (1929–2007), explored how representations distort reality or conceal the absence of reality in a sign (Baudrillard 1994). His theory of simulacra is discussed in Chapter 7. His ‘categories’ of representing reality resemble the three key ‘representational paradigms’ (the ‘modalities’ of signs introduced earlier in this chapter) of the relationship within sign systems: • • • symbolic – the signifier has no connection to a referent but refers to other signs; iconic – the signifier is not directly connected to the referent but represents it transparently; indexical – there is seen to be a direct connection between the signifier and referent. Within the contemporary world of advertising, spin and mediahype, it is possible to see how the signifier has become a tool in the hands of whoever wishes to create a reality for their own ends. Critics have argued that Baudrillard’s perception that the signifiers only refer to other signifiers is ignoring the reality upon which the signifier is based. The artistic response to this detachment of signifier and signified has been the rejection of art with a higher meaning, i.e. the rejection of art as a tool within a wider value system such as existed, for example with Renaissance or Modernist art. As a result much contemporary art does not claim a set of accepted values but rather
Slide 125: 102 semiotics and poststructuralism is open to valid interpretation on many, any or no levels. For example, Jeff Koons’ (b. 1955) Three Ball Total Equilibrium Tank (Two Dr J Silver Series, Spalding NBA Tip-Off), 1985 (Figure 23, F p. 168), is discussed in relation to these ideas in Chapter 7. S T R U C T U R A L A N A LY S I S Semiotic theories have been used to develop a way of investigating the sign systems within a text or social practice called structural analysis. This method of analysis seeks to reveal the underlying signifying relationships within a text or social practice and the values or assumptions within the world they represent. The process of structural analysis is based on exploring the differences between signifiers within a text. There are two kinds of differences: • syntagmatic – concerns the position of the sign, for example the position of a word in a phrase or sentence. The syntagm was described by Saussure as a ‘chain’ of signifiers that are linked together in an ordered fashion. Syntagmatic analysis considers the horizontal relationships in a text, for example the grammatical relationships such as subject, verb, object. paradigmatic – concerns the ability to substitute one signifier for another and hence alter the meaning of the text. Paradigms link signifiers and signifieds into categories on a vertical axis. For example, a word in a sentence might be substituted for another word to explore how the meaning changes. • The premise is that signifiers are chosen from within syntagm and paradigm constructs and reflect the rules of the text or social practice. On a basic level this might be the rules for grammar, for example, but on a more complex level it can reflect the underlying value system within which the text was written. S Y N TA G M AT I C A N A LY S I S O F I M A G E S F In the same way, an image such as Allegory (Figure 15, p. 91) has been constructed with a set of signs that accord with signifying
Slide 126: semiotics and poststructuralism 103 rules of the period in which it was painted. The composition or sequence of signs in Allegory is a syntagm, whereas the signs themselves were chosen from a comparable range of signs to achieve the specific message of the image. The types of syntagm relations in texts can be related to the construction of images. Spatial relationships within an image are not neutral. As Western European language is read from left to right, so Western art has traditionally arranged elements to be read from left to right. Sequential relations introduce the idea of the narrative which has also traditionally been a component of image construction. For example, David’s Horatii is most appropriately read from left (the brothers swearing the oath) to right (the women’s response to the men’s actions). Similarly up/down, centre/periphery and close/distant are used to support hierarchical constructs in images. For example, Christian religious imagery often makes use of the up/down syntagm – up is closer to God and heaven; down is earthly, human and hell (Chandler 2002: 79–89). DISCOURSE AND POWER The term discourse is often used loosely to refer to a cohesive group of ideas or rules which govern a particular subject or theory. A discourse might include various interconnected textual, visual or spoken components which present a set of ideas. Here, discourse refers to an aggregation of signs used within any cohesive set of texts, speeches or images. Saussure was only interested in studying the underlying structures of sign systems rather than their use. More recent studies have looked at the interconnectedness of signs within a discourse. For example, structural analysis is concerned with the relationship between signs in a text or discourse and also between the signs that are used compared to those that are not. Michel Foucault developed a theory of discourse as a theoretical construction within which humans operate. It can perhaps best be understood as an organisation of signs which defines and constrains the language and interactions of a particular area of existence. Foucault explored discourses within medical and psychiatric treatises of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries with particular reference to madness and civilisation (1971). He was
Slide 127: 104 semiotics and poststructuralism interested in understanding changes in the nature of medical knowledge from myth and superstition to an increasingly ‘scientific’ and apparently objective basis. His studies convinced him that the goal of an ultimate ‘truth’ did not exist – there were only discourses which shifted over time. Foucault went on to develop his theory of discourse in relation to punishment and prisons (1977). Ultimately he concluded that knowledge systems were developed as systems of power and domination. He argued that knowledge systems – medical, legal, political or philosophical – rather than being based on rational and objectively deduced ‘truths’, were constructed to support social hierarchies (Foucault 1980b). D I S C O U R S E A N D ‘ M E TA N A R R AT I V E S ’ It is worth drawing attention here to the theoretical connections between discourse, the search for hidden meaning through structural analysis and Jean-François Lyotard’s construct of the metanarrative, discussed in Chapter 7. Lyotard’s initial task was to explore the state of knowledge in capitalist society, and he created the concept of the metanarrative to explain the structure of knowledge-generating systems, such as science, at the highest level (1979). It is possible to see parallels between Lyotard’s idea of a grand system of rules which controls the processes of knowledge systems (a higher level of understanding or meaning), and the interconnected structures of a discourse exposed by structural analysis. Lyotard went on to explore the nature of metanarratives, where the elements of meaning in a discourse – sentences, phrases and texts – can be separated or re-connected to reveal multiple overlapping metanarratives (1983). Lyotard’s studies of the structures of knowledge systems explored meaning on a higher level than the sign but they presented parallel challenges to our ability to represent meaning in a single or consistent way. P A R A D I G M AT I C O P P O S I T I O N S Central to both the structural analysis of a text and the sign systems underlying the discourse, or metanarrative, is the concept of paradigmatic oppositions. Just to recap – the syntagmatic differences
Slide 128: semiotics and poststructuralism 105 refer to the relationships between signifiers within the text and the paradigmatic differences refer to the choice of signifier included in the text compared to those not included. If we take the following sentence as an example (it is usually used as a mnemonic for the alphabet): The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog. Syntagmatic analysis explores the relationships between the actual words in the sentence, for example the grammatical relationship between the subject (the fox), verb (jumps) and object (the dog). Paradigmatic analysis looks at the choice of words used in the sentence, such as quick, fox, lazy and dog, and considers what alternatives might have been used. If we explore these alternatives – oppositions – we can see a framework of signifiers emerging – quick opposed to slow, fox/dog, lazy/active and dog/fox. The choices made between the oppositions frame the meaning of the sentence. The theory of binary oppositions was a key analytical tool used by Roman Jakobson (1896–1982) and has become highly influential in the development of gender and postcolonial theories. Believed to be rooted in early childhood psychological development and a fundamental characteristic of language, binary oppositions impose order on the experience of the world (Jakobson and Halle 1956: 60; Lyons 1977: 271). Jakobson believed that the meaning of opposites is bound together so that one could not have meaning without the other. For example, the meanings of wet and dry are dependent on each other – wet is not dry and vice-versa – it is difficult to conceive wet without reference to dry. Although some oppositions are opposite or mutually exclusive, for example birth/death, others are simply ‘contrasts’, for example young/old, where the difference may be graduated. Although these oppositions are not intrinsic to the natural world they can become embedded within our consciousness. For example, we may see these oppositions as fundamental to the world rather than something created by society. In Chapter 6 we see how the opposition of masculine/feminine and male/female has been questioned by feminists and queer theory. The latter has argued, for example, that the culturally constructed oppositions of gender are no longer valid, proposing more flexible and diverse alternatives.
Slide 129: 106 semiotics and poststructuralism Binary oppositions or ‘paired signifiers’ are thought to create the fundamental underlying structures to texts, or images, so that further relationships are embedded. If we return to the sentence analysed earlier we can see that the signifiers (words) create a paradigm in which the fox is quick, fast and active and the dog is slow and lazy. They engender positive and negative connotations for the characteristics of the dog and fox, precluding the possibility of alternatives – that the dog might be fast and active or the fox slow and lazy. As a whole, the sentence is more than a simple observation and might be interpreted as a discourse about the nature of dog and fox! Whether this is true in reality or metaphorically is irrelevant; the discourse is selfreferential and relies on the underlying oppositions to create meaning. If we use this method on texts or images which deal with, for example, representations of masculine and feminine roles or characteristics we can see that the underlying oppositions are critical to gender discourse. We might see, for example, that in representing men as powerful and strong we are also representing woman as F emasculated and weak. In the Horatii (Figure 12, p. 63), the characteristics of the men and women are clearly presented and are in opposition. The men are strong, muscular, active, powerful, in control and decisive, whereas the women are weak, languid, disempowered and have no influence over the unfolding events. This image presents a discourse in which the roles and characteristics of men and woman are clearly defined and opposed. In contrast, Barbara F Kruger’s (b. 1945) We Don’t Need Another Hero, 1987 (Figure 16, p. 107) directly questions these assumptions and the stereotypical role of the male hero. In her work the image and words challenge the accepted oppositions in the discourse of traditional gender roles. The anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss (b. 1908) analysed systems of meaning developed in cultures by studying social rules, practices and myths. He proposed that binary oppositions form the basis for dealing with the complexities of cultural dilemmas or contradictions. In other words societies construct binary oppositions to handle and resolve conflicting situations. As a result binary oppositions attract additional connotations of good and bad, permitted and forbidden. Based on perceived oppositions in the natural world, these oppositions become embedded within the structures of society and assume the guise of ‘natural’ oppositions, even though they are culturally formulated. Although Lévi-Strauss’
Slide 130: Figure 16 We Don’t Need Another Hero, Barbara Kruger, 1987. Commissioned and produced by Artangel, © DACS, London, 2006.
Slide 131: 108 semiotics and poststructuralism studies did not take a historical perspective, he did acknowledge that oppositions were fluid and could change over time (Lévi-Strauss 1974 [1962]). BINARY OPPOSITIONS AND ART Art movements can be fitted into this structure of oppositions, with particular aesthetic interests allied to certain oppositional characteristics. For example, surveys of eighteenth-century art typically identify three ‘movements’: • • Rococo – associated with the frivolous and decadent society of the French court; Neo-classicism – associated with renewed values of the classical world and the rationalism of the Enlightenment, which was popular with Napoleon Bonaparte; Romanticism – associated with a rejection of the rational in favour of the imaginary. • Each development has been characterised in opposition to the previous style, despite evident contradictions. For example, artists classified as Romantic never saw themselves as a movement, and the styles of Francisco de Goya y Lucientes (1746–1828) and Caspar David Friedrich have little in common. Matthew Craske’s recent reevaluation of the period shows how the traditional oppositions break down when the art is viewed from new perspectives (Craske 1997: 7–21). MARKEDNESS Jakobson proposed the theory that all components of linguistic systems are classified by their markedness – i.e. the presence or absence of a characteristic (cited in Lechte 1994: 62; Chandler 2002: 110–15). With paradigmatic oppositions, the two poles of binary opposites or paired signifiers are either marked or unmarked. The marked signifier is in some way distinguished from the unmarked by some feature. Signifiers can be marked in various ways, for example ‘dress’ and ‘home’ are unmarked whereas ‘undress’ and ‘homeless’ are marked. With paired oppositions, the two signifiers
Slide 132: semiotics and poststructuralism 109 have different values – the unmarked is primary and the marked is secondary. In this way markedness differentiates oppositions as ‘positive’ or ‘negative’, ‘term A’ or ‘term B’. Although the primary signifier is dominant, we have seen how Derrida showed that it cannot have meaning without the secondary signifier (Derrida 1976). Typically, in paired oppositions, the dominant or the unmarked signifier comes ‘naturally’ first in the pairing, for example man/ woman, good/bad, high/low and fact/fiction (an extensive list of opposites and their markedness is given in Chandler 2002: 114). This ‘natural’ hierarchy can sometimes be traced to a historical event when the markedness was first defined. Foucault’s studies of social power dynamics explored how markedness is created and maintained (1970 and 1974). Derrida, among others, sought to challenge or overturn the dominance of the unmarked, or ‘term A’. He questioned, for example, the dominance of speech over writing and used deconstruction to undermine conventional pairing hierarchies (Derrida 1976). In tune with these concerns, contemporary artists have sought to challenge and reverse the dominant signifiers in gender, postcolonial and postmodernist spheres, as we shall see in the following chapters. F I G U R AT I V E L A N G U A G E The model developed by Saussure for the signifier/signified relationship suggests a one-to-one system, but the Peirce model identifies the potential for a continuous cycle of referential meanings. The structural analysis of texts, or images, has shown how signifiers are interconnected. It is possible to see that language systems offer the potential for hidden meanings and structures of thought. We can also see that language is rhetorical – it is used to persuade others of the cultural ‘norms’ of society. Another aspect to this is the use of figurative language. Figurative language employs tropes – a word or expression used to mean something other than its literal sense – such as metaphors and metonyms. Chandler provides a detailed analysis of the four ‘master tropes’ (2002: 127–40): • Metaphor – is describing or referring to one thing but using another. This means one signifier is used to refer to
Slide 133: 110 semiotics and poststructuralism another signifier, which in turn refers to a signified. Lakoff and Johnson have classified metaphor into three kinds of relationships between the linked signifiers – orientational (e.g. spatial), ontological (e.g. conceptual) and structural (broader metaphors built on the other two kinds) (Lakoff and Johnson 1980). Examples are ‘the weather is Arctic’; ‘the grass is greener’; the dress and surroundings of the sitters in Sargent’s Mrs Fiske Warren (Gretchen Osgood) and Her Daughter Rachel, 1903 (Figure 21, p. 145) are a F metaphor for the wealth of the husband. Metonym – using one signified to mean another signified, where they are closely related. The signified is substituted for a related signified – effect for cause, object for user, substance for form, place for event, person or institution, institution for people/person and vice-versa. Examples are ‘crown’ for king; ‘throw the book at him’ meaning ‘charge him under the rules’; the apple in Cranach’s Adam and Eve, 1526 (Figure 20, p. 142) is a metonym for the sins of F the world in Christian thought. Synecdoche – there are various definitions for this but the most widely used is the ‘substitution of the part for the whole, genus for a species and vice-versa’ (Lanham 1969: 97). It is sometimes seen as a type of metonym because it is also the substitution of one signified for another. Examples are ‘wheels’ for ‘car’; ‘England’ for the English cricket team. It might be argued that many twentieth-century art works could be described in this way. For example Picasso’s Guernica, 1937, represents the carnage of one attack to signify the horrors of war in general. Similarly, Warhol’s Campbell’s Soup Cans Series, 1962, either individually or collectively could represent commercialisation. Irony – similar to a metaphor, where one signifier is used to mean another, but we only know of this through the presence of other signifiers. Often the signifier used means the opposite of what the other signifier means. Examples are ‘can you go any slower?’ when faster is what is wanted; Barbara F Kruger’s We Don’t Need Another Hero, 1987 (Figure 16, p. 107), conveys irony in the conflicting message of the aggressively gesturing boy and the text of the poster. • • •
Slide 134: semiotics and poststructuralism 111 Figurative language is more common in everyday speech than might be thought, and the use of analogy is central to language. The use of representation to explain something else underlies the maintenance of reality. Within this form of language, a signifier does not mean its obvious signified but another altogether. The pursuit of an objective view of the world began in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Scientists believed it was possible to record and describe the world in literal terms and philosophers debated the separate spheres of the mind and the body. However, language cannot be neutral or objective, and metaphor is fundamental to the way we describe the world. The term ‘Enlightenment’ is itself a metaphor. Metaphor is widespread in art of all periods. This is perhaps F easiest to see in Allegory, c.1540–50 (Figure 15, p. 91), or Cranach’s Adam and Eve, 1526 (Figure 20, p. 142), but is equally present in F Jeff Koons’ Three Ball Total Equilibrium Tank (Two Dr J Silver Series, Spalding NBA Tip-Off), 1985 (Figure 23, p. 168) (see Chapter 7). F Metaphor and its associated tropes operate on the level of the signifier, but alternative meanings can also operate at the level of the signified. The relationship between the signifier and signified is usually differentiated as denotation or connotation. At its simplest level, the denotation is the most obvious meaning – i.e. the most commonly used signifier/signified relationship. For example, the denotation of ‘black’ might be the colour. Connotations are subsidiary meanings for a signifier, i.e. other meanings of ‘black’ might relate to race, mood or darkness. However, studies by Roland Barthes and Valentin Voloshinov (1884/5–1936) demonstrate that such differentiation is not valid. They argue that the denotation is simply another connotation which has achieved dominance through experience, evaluation and consensus. Barthes developed this further by proposing levels of signification with denotation at the first level and connotation at the second level (Barthes 1972 [1957]; Hjelmslev 1961). A third order of signification has been related to myths or ideologies which underpin significant cultural concepts such as gender, ethnicity and freedom (Chandler 2002: 140–46). SOCIAL SEMIOTICS One criticism of Saussurean semiotics is that it does not provide tools for understanding the historical or social dimension of communication.
Slide 135: 112 semiotics and poststructuralism Saussure’s approach is entirely synchronic in that it only considers the sign at the moment of its engagement and does not take account of changes or developments in sign usage over time – diachronic. He focused on the langue – the sign structures of language – rather than the parole – the specific implementations within an actual language. Russian linguists Valentin Voloshinov and Mikhail Bakhtin (1895–1975) challenged this approach. Voloshinov argued that the meaning of signs could only be understood within the social context of their use, therefore placing emphasis on the parole – the implementation of langue. Russians Roman Jakobson and Yuri Tynyanov (1894–1943) also argued that the purely synchronic approach was flawed. These theorists proposed that a particular speech, text or image was involved with previous events and was geared to a particular response. This breaks from the arbitrary relationship between signifier and signified and argues for a social grounding for meanings. Voloshinov went on to say that the sign was ‘an arena of class struggle’ (Voloshinov 1973: 166). Within the social setting of semiotics, signs acquire conventional meanings and codes which are developed and adapted over time. As Frascina has shown in analysing the signs, codes and conventions of nudes at different times, the social context of signs is a critical element of artistic change. He demonstrates how the conventions of the nude have been successively challenged by Manet’s Olympia, 1863, and Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, 1907. He further argues that the challenges of avant-garde art are rooted in its ability to break the normal sign conventions and present multiaccentuality – engagement with multiple social classes (Frascina 1993: 122–33). POSTSTRUCTURALISM AND ITS CRITICS The development of semiotic theories since Saussure and Peirce first formulated their sign models can be understood as an exploration of the way meanings are created in language. The first phase of this – structuralism – was based on the structural nature of the theories of signs and meaning. A second phase – poststructuralism – had primacy in the 1970s and questioned the stability of signs and meaning. We have seen how this has created a wholly relational model – one in which there is a potential for a sign to mean anything.
Slide 136: semiotics and poststructuralism 113 At one extreme, the search for the source of meanings has found that signs can be manipulated; they depend on other signs for their meaning and are largely socially constructed. This ‘disintegration’ of meaning has been hailed by poststructuralists such as Foucault, Derrida and Kristeva as providing the potential for new perspectives for understanding signs, texts and discourses. However, other theorists have rejected this relativising free-for-all and have argued that things have gone too far. Marxist theorists such as Dews (1987) and Eagleton (1990) have attacked the apparent denial of grounded values which arose from the Enlightenment project of social emancipation. Discussing such relativism, Eagleton writes: Truth is a lie; morality stinks; beauty is shit. And of course they are absolutely right. Truth is a White House communiqué; morality is the Moral Majority; beauty is a naked woman advertising perfume. Equally of course they are wrong. Truth, morality and beauty are too important to be handed contemptuously over to the political enemy. (Eagleton 1990: 372) Although critics point to the limitations of the methods of structuralist and poststructuralist theories, they have nevertheless proved highly influential in the analysis of art, culture and aesthetics. By exploring the self-referentiality of sign systems, structuralism and poststructuralism emphasise the nuances and complexities of representation. SUMMARY Ferdinand de Saussure and Charles Sanders Peirce founded the discipline of semiotics – the study of signs – with models for the relationship between signifier (the sign), signified (the idea or concept) and object. Although developing two different models, their studies established approaches to exploring the structure and meaning of signs which have influenced contemporary art historical approaches. The structure of signs was further explored through the mode of relationship between the signifier, signified and object. Modality is concerned with the arbitrariness or stability of the signifier/signified relationship, and therefore how close signs are to reality. Perceptions of this relationship vary from the idealist (far from
Slide 137: 114 semiotics and poststructuralism reality) and the realist (close to reality) viewpoints. Art exemplifies different modalities and has challenged the stability of sign systems. For example, poststructuralist theorists Jacques Derrida and Roland Barthes have argued for a complete instability between signs and meanings. Derrida developed the approach of deconstruction, which explores the choices of signs used in a text, or discourse, in order to reveal elided meanings. The concept of difference, and différance, between paired signs, such as man/woman, good/evil, underlies language systems and demonstrates asymmetries of power in text, discourse and images. Michel Foucault’s studies of power dynamics in social and political structures have revealed the dependencies between the construction of knowledge systems, meaning and power. Figurative language, such as the metaphor, is also used to structure ideas. Some theorists have explored the social context and implementation of sign systems to argue that usage can also contribute to and change meanings. Some critics have challenged the lack of moral or ethical grounding resulting from a wholesale questioning of meaning within language. However, the importance of semiotic and poststructuralist approaches to the sign and its meanings is apparent in their use in feminist, postmodernist and postcolonial theories. FURTHER READING Daniel Chandler’s Semiotics: The Basics (Abingdon, UK and New York, 2002) (also at http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/ semiotic.html) is an excellent introduction to the subject. It provides clear and detailed explanations of the concepts, terms and developments in semiotics. Also useful is Paul Cobley and Litza Jansz’s Introducing Semiotics (Duxford, UK and New York, 1997). Another lucidly written introduction is Bronwen Martine and Felizitas Ringham, Key Terms in Semiotics (London and New York, 2006). Ferdinand de Saussure’s original lectures, Course in General Linguistics, also provide a foundational text; the most recent edition is Open Court Classics (Chicago, 1988 [1916]).
Slide 138: 5 P S Y C H O A N A LY S I S , A R T A N D THE HIDDEN SELF INTRODUCTION The rigidity of such [fetishistic] standards is reminiscent of the severe canons upheld by some critics or exponents of the fine arts. Indeed, if one did not know what was the actual subject matter of association, it would be difficult for the hearer to distinguish certain diagnostic discussions of the conditions for perverse sexual gratification from an aesthetic discussion of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ art. (Edward Glover, ‘Sublimation, Substitution and Social Anxiety’, in On Early Development of Mind (1956)) Glover’s aside on the parallels between artistic discourse and human character pathology underline their interconnection. The word aesthetic stems from the Greek term ‘aisthesis’ – that which relates to the realm of human perception and sensation (Eagleton 1990: 13). It is therefore unsurprising that psychoanalytic theories have influenced recent approaches to art history and have been a significant referent within twentieth-century art. This chapter introduces psychoanalytic theories and discusses how ideas and categories relating to the unconscious might be used to characterise art and aesthetic creativity. How did Sigmund
Slide 139: 116 psychoanalysis, art and the hidden self Freud’s theories of the unconscious develop and what was his legacy? How have subsequent revisions of his ideas by Melanie Klein (1882–1960) and Jacques Lacan (1901–81) influenced theories of cultural representation? How can we apply theories of psychoanalysis and the unconscious to themes in art and approaches to art history? F R E U D , P S Y C H O A N A LY S I S A N D P S Y C H O - S E X U A L DEVELOPMENT Freud coined the term ‘psychoanalysis’ in 1895, based on his observations of patients with severe mental disorders. Drawing upon patient behaviour and response to therapy, Freud theorised about the nature of the mind – the psyche – and the origins of mental disorders. In Studies in Hysteria, terms such as the unconscious, repression, trauma (Greek for wound) and pathogenic (diseasecreating) were used for the first time in describing a patient’s mental condition (Freud and Breuer 1895). For Freud the unconscious was the part of the mind in which memories and thoughts were held but of which the patient was not conscious. He believed that problems associated with these memories were therefore hidden or repressed – unavailable to the conscious mind. His therapeutic technique was to uncover these hidden memories – thoughts, emotions and desires – in order to resolve the conflicts and disruptive symptoms they caused (Appignanesi and Zarate 1979: 26–41). Freud used hypnotism, word play and dream analysis to expose mental disorders within the unconscious, and to explore the nature and development of the psyche. From his early studies Freud proposed that the psyche had two parts – the unconscious and the preconscious: • The unconscious contained unorganised desires and impulses for basic needs such as food or sex. These were driven by the instinct for pleasure – which Freud termed the pleasure principle. The preconscious contained organised thoughts and memories that can become conscious. The drive here was for managing the real world – termed the reality principle. •
Slide 140: psychoanalysis, art and the hidden self 117 Freud perceived a tension and conflict between the pleasure principle and the reality principle. In studying his patients’ symptoms and responses to treatment, Freud identified four key mental phenomena which derived from the unconscious. These were dreams, jokes, slips (commonly termed Freudian slips) and psycho-neurotic behaviours (physical behaviours which could not be explained by physical causes, e.g. facial tics, psychosomatic paralysis). These provided a window, as it were, onto the unconscious mind, allowing Freud to understand the causes of mental disorders (Wollheim 1991 [1971]: 65–106). Freud sought explanations for the mental pathologies he treated in relation to the development of sexual identity and sexual desire. His Three Essays on Sexuality (1905) suggested that the two concepts of sexual pleasure – the desire for sex – and genital pleasure – specific stimulation of the genital area – were defined by different drives. The sex drive with which we are born – the libido – has mental (psyche) and physical (soma) elements. Healthy development of the libido resulted in sexual desires that were satisfied by appropriate stimulation. If development was atypical, sexual desire could become directed at other stimulants and lead to sexual perversions such as voyeurism, exhibitionism and fetishism. These concepts are discussed in relation to art later in the chapter. Freud located the origins of these characteristics in the earliest development of childhood sexuality. At birth the child’s sex drive has no structure or direction, which Freud called ‘the polymorphous perverse’. By this Freud meant that the infant takes pleasure from stimulation of any part of the body – an erotogenic zone. As the child develops and gains experience of the world, its psyche and libido go through various stages of psycho-sexual development. The first, oral stage, depends on the pleasure of the mouth through sucking the mother’s breast for food. At this stage the infant sees itself in control of the world – its world. In the second, anal stage, the infant gains pleasure through controlling its bowels. The retaining or releasing of excrement provides a new means of control over its world. At the third, phallic stage, around three or four years old, the child explores pleasure through genital stimulation and begins to recognise differences in sexual anatomy (Wollheim 1991 [1971]: 107–19).
Slide 141: 118 psychoanalysis, art and the hidden self THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX Freud proposed that when the child is five or six years old, it enters the Oedipal phase. The child’s relationship with its mother and father now becomes the focus of sexual development. Freud theorised that as boys recognised that their sexual anatomy matched their father’s, they became anxious that their desire for their mother would result in castration by their father. This desire also triggered the urge to kill their father, who is perceived as a rival and threat. Freud associated these processes with the Greek myth of Oedipus, who killed his father and married his mother – hence the Oedipus complex. Possibly more problematic is Freud’s explanation of how girls negotiate the Oedipal phase. He believed that they recognised the genital differences and perceived themselves as already castrated. This allegedly resulted in penis envy which led to the rejection of the mother, who is blamed for the girl’s castrated state, and the subsequent acceptance of a passive sexual role (Wollheim 1991 [1971]: 119–22). Freud recognised that there were two natures within the individual – the masculine and the feminine – effectively proposing that all individuals are inherently bisexual. The process he proposed by which an individual develops and defines their sexual identity is complex. Between the age of six and puberty, the sex drive appears dormant and the early desires and experiences are repressed – submerged into the unconscious. Having laid the foundations of the libido, they remain as unconscious memories which will be involved in future sexual desire. According to Freud, it is when these early stages of sexual development are not fulfilled correctly that neuroses – physical or psychological signs of mental disorder – emerge. Individuals can become fixated in one of the stages of development, resulting in inhibited behaviour patterns. Alternatively, others might regress to an earlier stage of development with aspects of the sexual identity incompletely developed. For example, fetishists need a particular object to achieve sexual excitement, whereas for narcissists the object of sexual desire is the individual’s own body. Freud concluded that as the sex drive could be orientated in many different directions, it had no natural object (Appignanesi and Zarate 1979: 89–98). Although Freud’s ideas of sexual development have been challenged and criticised, for example by the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung
Slide 142: psychoanalysis, art and the hidden self 119 (1875–1961), they established the basic principles of subsequent psychiatric theory. THE TRIPARTITE STRUCTURE OF THE PSYCHE In 1923 Freud proposed a model of the mind which mapped the centres of desire (The Ego and the Id): • The id is the psyche of the newborn infant and is the reservoir of unconscious desire. In the grown person the id resides in the unconscious. As the child becomes aware of the external world, the id is altered and the psyche moves to the next stage. The transition from the id coincides with the developing awareness of bodily activities. The ego is differentiated from the id. When the infant becomes aware of the real world, the ego enables the child to become self-aware through interactions of the mouth, anus and genitals. The ego resides in the conscious but its repression of the id is unconscious. In the grown person the ego provides a defence mechanism against the primitive urges of the id. • Freud extended this thesis to a third element, the superego, which develops from the Oedipus complex. The hostility the child feels for its parents during the Oedipal phase is repressed but translates into introjections of parental control. As a result the id’s aggressive urges are renounced (Wollheim 1991 [1971]: 192–96). I N S T I N C T U A L E N E R G I E S , C R E AT I V I T Y A N D S U B L I M AT I O N Freud believed that instinctual conflict involved interaction between the twin dynamics – the pleasure principle and the reality principle. He realised that these two drives were not actually in conflict, but that each discharged tension in the pursuit of pleasure. In exploring these issues, Freud sought to understand why individuals repeated the trauma of unpleasant experiences. One example which he encountered was that of soldiers repeatedly dreaming of terrifying experiences from the First World War. He proposed the concept of
Slide 143: 120 psychoanalysis, art and the hidden self the death instinct – thanatos – in which the individual fights against perceived threats. This can lead to aggression against external threats, but can also lead to destructive urges when directed against the self. In parallel to this, the love instinct, eros, drives the individual to reproduce. Sublimation is the redirection of instinctual urges – for example sexual drives or libidinal energy – towards non-instinctual behaviour. For example, the problems arising from atypical development of sexual drives result in those drives being directed towards atypical sexual activities. According to Freud, art, culture and social norms arise from the sublimation of these instinctual energies, beliefs outlined in Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920). Applying these ideas, Freud (1963 [1910]) also analysed the life and work of Leonardo da Vinci. Although partially based on a flawed translation of da Vinci’s writings, Freud situated aspects of da Vinci’s iconography in the context of the artist’s relationships with his mother and step-mother. S U R R E A L I S M A N D P S Y C H O A N A LY S I S Freudian theories have directly influenced aspects of art practice and art historical discourse throughout the twentieth century. One particular avant-garde in which Freudian ideas played a formative part was that of Surrealism. Although the movement contained diverse practices and personalities, Freudian concepts of dreams, fantasies, neuroses and fetishes became central to the iconography and debates of many Surrealists. For example, Fer has described the ‘feminine’ as ‘Surrealism’s central organising metaphor of difference’ (Fer 1993: 171). Various artists associated with Surrealism situated the feminine other in relation to Freudian concepts of the unconscious and the uncanny. Despite Freud’s denials, many Surrealist artists believed it was possible to produce art that visualised the workings of the unconscious. This was most famously explored by Masson and his association with the technique of psychic automatism (Fer 1993: 172). Masson, stepbrother of the French psychiatrist Jacques Lacan, believed that automatic painting could be driven by the unconscious, allowing the display of previously hidden emotions and ideas. Artists contemporary with Masson such as Salvador Dalí (1904–89) and Magritte
Slide 144: psychoanalysis, art and the hidden self 121 also incorporated Freudian motifs in their work, for example The Reckless Sleeper, 1928 (Tate Modern, London). In this painting, a sleeping figure lies above a panel containing ‘Freudian symbols’, which have latent meaning within Freudian dream analysis, such as the mirror and the apple. Surrealist ideas are a recurrent aspect within the work of modernist and contemporary artists. The following websites provide insights into the work of the earlier avant-garde and that of more recent artists: http://www.gosurreal.com http://www.surrealism-artlinks.com Magritte’s The Reckless Sleeper, 1928, can be found on the Tate Modern collection website http://www.tate.org.uk/modern. G O M B R I C H A N D P S Y C H O A N A LY S I S The widely known Austrian-born art historian Ernst Gombrich was introduced to psychoanalytic ideas early in his career through collaborations with the Freudian analyst Ernst Kris (1900–57). Although subsequent work made extensive use of psychology in relation to theories of artistic perception and representation, Gombrich adapted Freud’s idea of the verbal joke, rather than the dream, as a paradigm for artistic creativity. However, it has been suggested that Gombrich made comparatively limited use of Freud’s ideas because he was concerned about the extent to which the clinical evidence could be corroborated (Woodfield 2002: 431). KLEIN, STOKES, FULLER AND THE ‘INFANT–MOTHER’ PARADIGM Melanie Klein was a student of Freud who took his ideas a stage further. She emphasised the early years of infant development and the central role of the child’s ambivalent relationship and connection with its mother. During this stage the child only recognises those part objects of the mother upon which it is dependent for survival and nurture, for example the breast. Klein characterised this as the ‘paranoid-schizoid’ position. This is understood to give way to the ‘depressive’ stage within which the child acknowledges
Slide 145: 122 psychoanalysis, art and the hidden self its own identity, perceiving its mother as a separate person (Rycroft 1977: 80–81). Central to this stage is the child’s developing awareness of the pain and aggression which it had previously displayed to its mother. For Klein, human identity is understood in terms of this alternation between positive and negative impulses, with eventual maturity arising through the resolution of conflicting drives. Adrian Stokes (1902–72) was a painter, critic and art theorist who made extensive use of psychoanalysis in his own work. Between 1929 and 1937, Stokes underwent a formative course of psychoanalytic treatment with Melanie Klein, after which he began to paint and to author the books for which he is most remembered: The Quattro Cento: A Different Conception of the Italian Renaissance (1932), Stones of Rimini (1934) and Colour and Form (1937). Arising from his therapeutic experiences, Stokes’ art criticism has been characterised by its author’s intense self-absorption in the linking of the art objects to perception and biographical experience (Scruton 1981: 148). Stokes applied Klein’s ‘organicist’ ideas to art making as an externalisation of the process of ‘reparation’ to the mother. Through this process, the artist’s psyche asserts and delineates its presence within the world. For example, Stokes maps the acts of ‘carvingmodelling’ onto the two developmental stages identified by Klein. Carving is understood as indicative of the depressive position and the creation of an autonomous and separate object – both literally and psychologically. However, modelling is suggestive of the earlier ‘paranoid-schizoid’ stage which is expressed by the emphasis on ‘flatness, decoration, and failure to establish a separate identity, or to recognise the distinction and space between the self and the mother’ (Fuller 1988 [1980]: 149). Stokes perceived both these stages of the aesthetic process as compensatory and interlinked, applying not just to the physical and creative making of art, but also to its contemplation and critical evaluation (Kite 2003: 260). Critics have characterised Stokes’ work following the Second World War as a major project which explored the implications of Freudian and Kleinian paradigms for the creative process. He published extensively, tackling monographs on modernist artists like Cézanne (1947) and Monet (1958); and applying psychoanalytic insights to ancient classical culture (1963); the genre of the nude (1967); and the relationship of art and science in Renaissance
Slide 146: psychoanalysis, art and the hidden self 123 painting (1949). The legacy of Stokes’ ideas has been cited in work by critics and cultural philosophers such as John Berger, Peter Fuller and Richard Wollheim (1923–2003), and art historians like Michael Baxandall and John Shearman (1931–2003) (Read 2002: xxi–xxii). The art critic and broadcaster Peter Fuller (1947–93) acknowledged the ideas of Stokes, and in turn applied psychoanalytic ideas to the creation and critical response to art (Fuller 1988 [1980]). For example, Fuller believed that psychoanalysis had a valuable contribution to make to issues of aesthetic experience and aesthetic value which more orthodox or instrumental theories had ignored. In consequence he interpreted the spatial dynamic of Modernist art in relation to Klein’s idea of the ‘depressive position’ and the attempt to establish an aesthetic independent of representation. Fuller writes: These early modernist painters certainly acknowledged the external otherness, the separateness and ‘outthereness’ [sic] of the outside world, but having acknowledged it, they sought to transfigure and transform it. . . . Their new forms emerge . . . as an extension into an occluded area of experience. (Fuller 1988 [1980]: 156) In the concluding observations to the collection of essays, Art and Psychoanalysis (1980), Fuller asserts a broader point about the importance of the ‘infant–mother relationship’. For him, the formative and developmental connection between child and adult was a metaphor for a more authentically human social polity which addressed ‘the past of each of us, and the future of all of us’ (Fuller 1988 [1980]: 237). L A C A N : T H E M I R R O R S TA G E ; T H E S Y M B O L I C , THE IMAGINARY AND THE REAL Jacques Lacan trained in medicine and psychiatry in Paris. His doctoral thesis on paranoia was influential on many Surrealists (Leader and Groves 1995: 10). Lacan reworked Freud’s developmental model, exploring the importance of the ‘mirror phase/stage’ throughout his life. At the mirror stage the infant identifies itself in an external image – seen either in a mirror or in the image of another infant. This process of identification, or mis-recognition,
Slide 147: 124 psychoanalysis, art and the hidden self with an outside image – termed the ego ideal – effectively solidifies the boundaries of the self. The mirror phase is followed by the transition from the real (comparable to Freud’s id) to the imaginary order (comparable to Freud’s ego) when the infant still believes itself to be part of the mother. It then moves into the symbolic order (comparable to Freud’s superego) when it recognises difference and begins to repress the imaginary order. The symbolic order is linked to the acquisition of language. The mirror stage is the beginning of the process of identifying self in the context of the other (Leader and Groves 1995: 18–61). Lacan’s seminars were attended by many of the next generation of critical thinkers including Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Louis Althusser (1918–90), Julia Kristeva, Luce Irigaray (b. 1932), and Claude Lévi-Strauss. Lacan linked Freudian theory and semiotics; dream theory and linguistics, asserting slips and symptoms as signifiers. Lacan proposed that the agency of the unconscious was language. FEMINIST CHALLENGES TO THE FREUDIAN AND LACANIAN PSYCHE As discussed in Chapter 4, poststructuralist theorists question foundational knowledge systems including Freudian and Lacanian ideas. In particular, poststructuralist feminist theorists challenge the perceived patriarchal structures of the psyche developed by Freud and Lacan. It is not just that they question the construction of the female psyche as rooted in absence of the phallus – the lack of a penis – but that such views fundamentally challenge the whole patriarchal bias of Freudian psychoanalytic discourse. Following Derrida’s use of deconstruction to reveal the underlying bias in texts and social ideologies, they have exposed the exclusion of the female as an equal identity within cultural structures. This has realigned cultural assumptions towards an equal female identity independent of the male for its definition. This approach is antithetical to the masculine value systems which had previously dominated epistemological and cultural debates. Hélène Cixous (b. 1937) and Luce Irigaray were two of the originators of French poststructuralist feminism. Cixous wrote about the relationship between sexuality and language. Derrida coined the term logocentrism (logic of the same) to describe how scholars and
Slide 148: psychoanalysis, art and the hidden self 125 philosophers, including Plato, used words to explain the world, thereby constructing a self-fulfilling definition of the natural order. Cixous and Irigaray perceived a further distinction in which the patriarchal drive dominated these knowledge constructions, coining the term phallogocentrism. The viewpoint contains only one gender – male – which provides the universal referent for all gender constructions. In other words, the domination of the phallus in Freudian and Lacanian theory demonstrates logocentrism, i.e. the self-fulfilling of male domination. Cixous’ concept of ‘écriture féminine’ proposed that female readers break out of phallogocentrism to find a new feminine form of expression – termed jouissance – equating to the experience of the female orgasm. Cixous and Irigaray challenged binary oppositions, enabling the conception of an independent female identity. They aimed to create two autonomous genders recognising two equal sexes. Their theories focus on the pre-Oedipal phase where experience and knowledge derive from bodily contact, promoting the mother–daughter relationship, which is considered to have been devalued by patriarchal society. Irigaray indicates three aims within her work: • • • the exposure of male ideology underlying the system of meaning and therefore of language; the creation of a feminine counter-system as a positive sexual identity for women; the establishment of an inter-subjective relationship of ‘being two’ between men and women. There has been broad-based criticism of the canon of French postmodernists, including Lacan, Kristeva and Irigaray, by Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont who have argued that such discourse has abused scientific terms, by using them either out of context or without regard for relevance or meaning (Sokal and Bricmont 1998). C R E AT I V I T Y, S A D I S M A N D P E R V E R S I O N As suggested by these ideas, psychoanalytic paradigms have explored the construction and motivation of human character pathologies. These encompass a spectrum of character behaviours, including ideas concerning atypical or aberrant behaviour. Janine
Slide 149: 126 psychoanalysis, art and the hidden self Chasseguet-Smirgel’s (1928–2006) Creativity and Perversion (1992) explores and expands Freud’s ‘anal structure of perversion’, and the ‘regressive and sadistic’ impulses which abolished sexual and generational difference (Kernberg 1992: ix). Although some of her insights applied to group psychology and political discourse, the book’s main focus was the relationship between pregenitality (i.e. the stage in infant development before the recognition of sexual difference) and creativity. Following Freud, sublimation is understood as a key aspect of the aesthetic process in which pregenital drives and energies are routed or displaced into less instinctual activities. According to psychoanalytic thinking, all forms of aesthetic and cultural activity are a consequence of sublimation within human ego development (Rycroft 1977: 159–60). As Eagleton puts it, ‘men and women go from toying with their faeces to tinkering with trombones’ (1990: 264). The central characteristic of the ‘perverse’ personality is identification with the mother rather than the ego ideal of the father. As contemporaries of the atypical subject move towards genital maturity, the perverse personality is compelled to re-emphasise the pregenitality of its own drives. This is manifest through defensive mechanisms of self-idealisation, narcissism and fetishism. These various identifications are points within which the perverse personality becomes fixed in its libidinal orientation (Chasseguet-Smirgel 1992: 91). Chasseguet-Smirgel describes various examples of pregenitality in which extreme narcissism and aberrant compulsions typify the artistic persona. Creating art therefore becomes a form of symbolic displacement through which the artist externalises and re-creates his/her own world. For example, the contorted and objectified mannequins and dolls associated with the Polish-born artist Hans Bellmer (1902–75) have been interpreted as aesthetic objectifications of pregenital drives (Chasseguet-Smirgel 1992: 22–23). These impulses directly reference the ideas associated with the Marquis de Sade (1740–1814): The Sadian hero identifies with her [Nature], a cruel and almighty mother, taking over the role of the originator of creation, that of God himself. For this destruction represents the creation of a new dimen-
Slide 150: psychoanalysis, art and the hidden self sion where undifferentiation, confusion and chaos prevail. The Sadian hero actually becomes the grinding machine, the cauldron in which the universe will be dissolved. (Chasseguet-Smirgel 1992: 5) 127 Chasseguet-Smirgel’s psychoanalytic paradigm suggests how particular character pathologies and Sadian personality formations are externalised through art. For example, the unapologetically coprophiliac imagery of Gilbert & George might suggest ‘pregenital dramas of retention, defilement, power and self-becoming’ (Taylor 2006: 10; Pooke 2006: 139–59). Similarly, we might consider the transgressive iconography of work by Andres Serrano (b. 1950) and Joel-Peter Witkin (b. 1939), and the explorations of prosthesis and body parts by Cindy Sherman (b. 1954), as symptomatic of wider and more inclusive dimensions of desire and human subjectivity. The subject and iconography of these artists makes apparent some of the psychoanalytic drives just discussed. By contrast, psychoanalytic readings might interpret the highly naturalistic and minutely painted landscapes and glossy portraits of the canon (see Chapter 1) as symptomatic of repressed and denied neurosis. Sade’s ideas have assumed a central significance for psychoanalysis. As a libertarian and atheist, his thinking prefigures the materialism and anti-idealism of post-Enlightenment thinkers like Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), Marx and Freud. His concerns with desire, corporeality and human self-creation anticipated the preoccupations of modern and postmodern culture. For example, the Surrealist poet Paul Eluard (1895–1952) acknowledged Sade’s cultural importance, claiming that he: wished to give back . . . the force of . . . primitive instincts and to liberate the amorous imagination from its fixations. He believed that in this way and in this way only would true equality be born. (Hood and Crowley 1999: 163) These theorists have closely associated psychoanalytical paradigms with the creative processes of art and the expression of unresolved developmental neuroses. They offer powerful insights into art practices and art historical approaches which are tangential